Oil and Gas Pipelines, Multi-Volume
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portes grátis
Oil and Gas Pipelines, Multi-Volume
Integrity, Safety, and Security Handbook
Revie, R. Winston
John Wiley & Sons Inc
01/2025
Dura
Inglês
9781119909613
Pré-lançamento - envio 15 a 20 dias após a sua edição
Descrição não disponível.
CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
PART I DIGITALIZATION OF PIPELINES
1 Digital Future of Pipeline Integrity
Gaurav Singh
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Digital Integrity Framework
1.2.1 General Pipeline Integrity Framework
1.2.2 Digital Framework for Pipeline Integrity Management Systems
1.2.3 Data Management
1.2.4 Integrity Management
1.3 Fast Forward Digital Future Technologies
1.3.1 Integrity Data Warehouse
1.3.2 Descriptive Analytics: What Has Happened
1.3.3 Predictive Analytics: What Will Happen?
1.3.4 Use Case: Virtual ILI
1.3.5 Space-based Digital Asset Monitoring (Earth Observation)
1.3.6 Radar
1.3.7 SAR time Series
1.4 Technology Transition with Energy Transition
References
2 Cybersecurity and Safety Implications of Pipelines
Ben Miller and Jason Christopher
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Industrial Cybersecurity
2.3 The Industrial Cybersecurity Challenge
2.4 Industrial Intrusion Case Studies - A Short History
2.5 Industrial Cybersecurity Considerations for Pipeline Operations
2.5.1 Is It Safe?
2.5.2 Dependent Systems and the Systems-of-Systems View
2.5.3 Understanding Vulnerabilities and the Engineering Mindset
2.6 The Five ICS Cybersecurity Critical Controls
2.6.1 Control No. 1:ICS-Specific Incident Response Plan
2.6.2 Control No. 2:Defensible Architecture
2.6.3 Control No. 3:ICS Network Visibility and Monitoring
2.6.4 Control No. 4:Secure Remote Access
2.6.5 Control No. 5:Risk-Based Vulnerability Management Program
2.7 Getting Started: Common High-Impact Scenarios for Pipeline Operations
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Practical Applications of Machine Learning to Pipeline Integrity
Michael Gloven
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Machine Learning Fundamentals
3.2.1 Overview
3.2.2 Getting Started
3.2.3 Learning Methods
3.2.4 Supervised vs. Unsupervised Learning
3.2.5 Model Cross-Validation and Testing
3.2.6 Model Performance
3.2.7 Data and Sources
3.2.8 Data Quality
3.2.9 Special Considerations for Pipeline Networks
3.2.10 Data Pre-Processing
3.3 Supervised Learning - Classification
3.3.1 Third Party Damage Use Case
3.3.2 Training Data
3.3.3 Select Method and Learn Model
3.3.4 Model Testing
3.3.5 Confusion Matrix
3.3.6 Learning Curves
3.3.7 Predictor Importance
3.3.8 Apply Model & Application of Results
3.4 Supervised Learning - Regression
3.4.1 External Corrosion Growth Rate Use Case
3.4.2 Training Data
3.4.3 Select Method and Learn Model
3.4.4 Model Testing
3.4.5 Unity Plots
3.4.6 Learning Curve
3.4.7 Predictor Importance
3.4.8 Apply Model & Application of Results
3.5 Unsupervised Learning
3.5.1 SCC Susceptibility Use Case
3.5.2 Training Data
3.5.3 Cluster Analysis
3.5.4 Predictor Variance Analysis
3.5.5 Partition Analysis and Best-k
3.5.6 Perform k-means and Plot Analysis
3.6 Final Thoughts
3.7 Summary
References
Bibliography
4 Pipeline Corrosion Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning
Khairul Chowdhury, Binder Singh, and Shahidullah Kawsar
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Analysis Tool: Automated Predictive Analytics Computation Systems
4.3.1 Solution Methodology Using Machine Learning
4.4 Problem Example: Predicting Failure by External and Internal Corrosion
4.4.1 Historical Data
4.4.2 Analysis and Intelligence
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
PART II DESIGN
5 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines in a Low-Carbon Economy
Daniel Sandana
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CCUS: An Enabler of Decarbonization
5.2.1 Carbon Capture: Back to the Future
5.2.2 The CCUS Landscape Worldwide
5.2.3 Existing CO2 Pipelines
5.3 Transportation of CO2 by Pipeline: Operations
5.3.1 Properties of CO2 and Operational Considerations
5.3.2 Presence of Impurities and CO2 Compositions
5.3.3 Effect of Impurities on Transportation
5.4 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Key Integrity Challenges
5.4.1 Pipeline (Internal) Time-Dependent Threats
5.4.2 Fracture Control
5.4.3 Integrity Experience of Existing CO2 Pipelines and Cautions
5.5 Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines
5.5.1 Defining CO2 Stream Specifications
5.5.2 Understanding Line Pipe Material Properties for Fracture Control
5.5.3 Defining Integrity Baseline Condition and Confirming MAOP
5.5.4 Managing Safe Operations: Inspections
References
6 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS)
Katherine Jonsson, Ray Goodfellow, Douglas Evans, and Chitman Lutchman
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity
6.3 Regulatory Requirements
6.4 What is a PIMS?
6.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements
6.6 PIMS Function Map
6.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational
6.8 Do: Execute
6.9 Check: Assurance and Verification
6.10 Act: Management Review
6.11 Culture
6.12 Summary
References
7 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Rumi Mohammad, Ian Verhappen, and Ramin Vali
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SCADA Computer Servers
7.3 SCADA Computer Workstations
7.4 Hierarchy
7.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases
7.6 Fault Tolerance
7.7 Redundancy
7.8 High Availability
7.9 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems
7.10 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis
7.11 Incident Review and Replay
7.12 Data Quality
7.13 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover
7.14 Training
7.15 SCADA Security
7.16 Cybersecurity
7.16.1 Reference Architecture
7.16.2 Control Layer
7.16.3 Demilitarized Zone (DMZ)
7.16.4 Firewalls and Isolation
7.16.5 Cybersecurity Standards Sources
7.16.6 Management of Change
7.16.7 SCADA User Permissions and Area of Responsibility
7.16.8 Zero Trust
7.16.9 Web Connection
7.17 SCADA Standards
7.18 Pipeline Industry Applications
7.18.1 Leak Detection
7.18.2 Batch Tracking
7.18.3 Dynamic Pipeline Highlight
7.19 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
7.19.1 Overview of an ML AI Based Application
7.19.2 Predictive Flow Models
7.19.3 Optimization Engines
7.19.4 Decision Support and Autonomous Operations
7.20 Communication Media
7.20.1 Ethernet (Copper) Data Cable
7.20.2 Leased Line
7.20.3 Dial-Up Line
7.20.4 Optical Fiber
7.20.5 Radio Communications
7.20.6 License-Free Spectra
7.20.7 Licensed Radio
7.20.8 Microwave
7.20.9 Satellite
7.20.10 Cellular Data
7.20.11 Low-Data-Rate Wireless
7.21 Communications Infrastructure
7.22 Communications Integrity
7.23 RTUs and PLCs
7.24 Database
7.25 User-Defined Programs
7.26 RTU/PLC Integrity
7.27 Safety Systems
7.27.1 Safety Integrity Level (SIL)
7.27.2 Safety Instrumented System (SIS)
7.27.3 Black Channel
7.28 IOT/IIOT
7.29 Electrical Classification Compliance
7.29.1 Area Classifications
Acronyms, Abbreviations, Terms
Bibliography
8 Material Selection for Fracture Control
William Tyson
8.1 Overview of Fracture Control
8.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation
8.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation
8.4 Toughness Measurement
8.4.1 Toughness Measurement: Impact Tests
8.4.2 Toughness Measurement: J, CTOD, and CTOA
8.5 Current Status
References
9 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines
Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi
9.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts
9.1.1 Overview of Strain-Based Design
9.1.2 Deterministic versus Probabilistic Design Methods
9.1.3 Limit States
9.1.4 Displacement Control versus Load Control
9.1.5 Strain-Based Design Applications
9.2 Strain Demand
9.2.1 Overview
9.2.2 Challenging Environments and Strain Demand
9.2.3 Strain Levels and Analysis Considerations
9.3 Strain Capacity
9.3.1 Overview
9.3.2 Compressive Strain Capacity
9.3.3 Tensile Strain Capacity
9.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing
9.5 Summary
References
10 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines
Mavis Sika Okyere
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Design Pressure
10.2.1 Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure
10.2.2 Maximum Operating Pressure
10.2.3 Surge Pressure
10.2.4 Test Pressure
10.3 Design Factor
10.4 Determination of Components of Stress
10.4.1 Hoop and Radial Stresses
10.4.2 Longitudinal Stress
10.4.3 Shear Stress
10.4.4 Equivalent Stress
10.4.5 Limits of Calculated Stress
10.5 Fatigue
10.5.1 Fatigue Life
10.5.2 Fatigue Limit
10.5.3 S-N Curve
10.6 Expansion and Flexibility
10.6.1 Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors
10.7 Corrosion Allowance
10.7.1 Internal Corrosion Allowance
10.7.2 External Corrosion Allowance
10.7.3 Formulas
10.8 Pipeline Stiffness
10.8.1 Calculation of Pipeline Stiffness
10.8.2 Calculation of Induced Bending Moment
10.9 Pipeline Ovality
10.9.1 Brazier Effect
10.9.2 Ovality of a Buried Pipeline
10.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius
10.10.1 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Concrete
10.10.2 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Steel
10.10.3 Installation Condition
10.10.4 In-Service Condition
10.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure
10.11.1 Buried Installation
10.11.2 Above-Ground or Unburied Installation
10.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions
10.13 Summary
Appendix 10.A: Case Study
References
11 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications
Ayman Eltaher
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility
11.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications
11.3.1 Design Challenges
11.3.2 Stress Analysis Challenges
11.3.3 Materials and Manufacturing Challenges
11.4 Typical Pipe Properties
11.5 Technology Qualification
11.6 Additional Resources
11.7 Summary
References
12 Residual Stress in Pipelines
Douglas Hornbach and Paul Prevey
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 The Nature of Residual Stresses
12.1.2 Sources of Residual Stresses
12.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance
12.2.1 Fatigue
12.2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking
12.2.3 Corrosion Fatigue
12.2.4 Effects of Cold Working and Microscopic Residual Stresses
12.3 Residual Stress Measurement
12.3.1 Center Hole Drilling Method
12.3.2 Ring Core Method
12.3.3 Slitting and Slotting Method
12.3.4 Deep Hole Drill Method
12.3.5 Diffraction Methods
12.3.6 Synchrotron X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction: Full Stress Tensor Determination
12.3.7 Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Method
12.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses
12.4.1 Shot Peening
12.4.2 Roller or Ball Burnishing and Low Plasticity Burnishing
12.4.3 Laser Shock Peening
12.4.4 Thermal Stress Relief
12.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work
12.5.1 Case Study 1: Restoration of the Fatigue Performance of Corrosion and Fretting Damaged 4340 Steel
12.5.2 Case Study 2: Mitigating SCC in Stainless Steel Weldments
12.5.3 Case Study 3: Mitigation of Sulfide Stress Cracking in P110 Oil Field Coupling
12.5.4 Case Study 4: Improving Corrosion Fatigue Performance and Damage Tolerance of 410 Stainless Steel
12.5.5 Case Study 5: Improving the Fatigue Performance of Downhole Tubular Components
References
13 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity
Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis
13.2.1 Overview
13.2.2 Pipeline Routing
13.2.3 Geotechnical Investigations
13.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design
13.3.1 Overview
13.3.2 Physical Modeling
13.3.3 Computational Engineering Tools
13.3.4 Guidance on Best Practice to Enhance Computational Pipe/Soil Interaction Analysis
13.3.5 Emerging Research
13.3.6 Soil Constitutive Models
13.3.7 Advancing the State of Art into Engineering Practice through an Integrated Technology Framework
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
References
14 Human Factors
Lorna Harron
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What Is "Human Factors"?
14.3 The Human in the System
14.4 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors
14.4.1 Example Case Study
14.5 Human Factors and Decision Making
14.5.1 Information Receipt
14.5.2 Information Processing
14.6 Application of Human Factors Guidance
14.7 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making
14.7.1 Satisficing Heuristic
14.7.2 Cue Primacy and Anchoring
14.7.3 Selective Attention
14.7.4 Availability Heuristic
14.7.5 Representativeness Heuristic
14.7.6 Cognitive Tunneling
14.7.7 Confirmation Bias
14.7.8 Framing Bias
14.7.9 Management of Decision-Making Challenges
14.8 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry
14.9 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited
14.10 Tools and Methods
14.11 Summary
References
Bibliography
PART III NONMETALLIC PIPELINES
15 Nonmetallic Composite Pipelines
Niels Grigat, Stephan Koss, Ben Vollbrecht, Tim Moelling, Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum, and Thomas Gries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials
15.2.1 Composites
15.3 Manufacturing
15.3.1 Filament Winding
15.3.2 Braiding
15.3.3 Pultrusion
15.3.4 Joining Methods
15.4 Applications
15.5 Conclusion
References
PART IV MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION
16 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels
Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development
16.2.1 Thermomechanically Controlled Processing of Pipeline Steels
16.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels
16.3.1 Fracture of Pipeline Steels
16.3.2 Effect of Phase Transformation on the Texture Components
16.3.3 Effect of Austenite Recrystallization on Plate Texture
16.3.4 Effect of Austenite Pancaking on the Rolling Texture
16.3.5 Effect of Finish Rolling in the Intercritical Region
16.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
17 Pipe Manufacture-Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe
Christoph Kalwa
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Manufacturing Process
17.3 Quality Control Procedures
17.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions
17.5 Typical Fields of Application
18 Pipe Manufacture - Spiral Pipe
Franz Martin Knoop
18.1 Manufacturing Process
18.2 Quality Control Procedures
18.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions
18.4 Typical Fields of Applicability
References
19 Pipe Manufacture-Seamless Tube and Pipe
Rolf Kuemmerling and Klaus Kraemer
19.1 The Rolling Process
19.1.1 Introduction and History
19.1.2 Cross Rolling Technology
19.1.3 Pilger Rolling
19.1.4 Plug Rolling
19.1.5 Mandrel Rolling
19.1.6 Forging
19.1.7 Size Rolling and Stretch Reducing
19.2 Further Processing
19.2.1 Heat Treatment
19.2.2 Quality and In-Process Checks
19.2.3 Finishing Lines
References
20 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines
Nobuyuki Ishikawa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method
20.2.1 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Full-Scale Test
20.2.2 Standardized Laboratory Evaluation Method for HIC
20.2.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
20.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with HIC Resistance
20.3.1 Effect of Non-Metallic Inclusions
20.3.2 Effect of Center Segregation
20.3.3 Effect of Plate Manufacturing Condition
20.4 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with SSC Resistance under Severe Sour Conditions
20.4.1 SSC Failure Caused by Local Hard Zone
20.4.2 Effect of Surface Hardness on SSC
References
21 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity
David Dorling and James Gianetto
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Construction Welding Applications
21.2.1 Double-Joint Welding
21.2.2 Mainline Welding
21.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding
21.3 Non-destructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment
21.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification
21.4.1 Welding Codes and Standards
21.4.2 Welding Procedures
21.4.3 Welding Procedure Specification
21.4.4 Procedure Qualification Record
21.4.5 Qualification of Welders
21.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking
21.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design
21.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines
21.8 Pipeline Incidents and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action
Appendix 21.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
Appendix 21.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards
Acknowledgements
References
22 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity
Robert O'Grady
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation
22.2.1 Pipeline Installation Loading and Failure Modes
22.2.2 S-Lay Method
22.2.3 J-Lay Method
22.2.4 Reel-Lay Method
22.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation
22.3.1 Vessel Restrictions
22.3.2 Pipeline Integrity Criteria
22.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies
22.4.1 Global Installation Analysis
22.4.2 Methodologies
22.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore
22.5.1 Monitoring Process and Remedial Action
22.5.2 Monitoring Analysis Software
22.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation
22.6.1 Increased Tension and Potential for Local Buckling
22.6.2 Plastic Strains
22.6.3 Prolonged Fatigue Exposure
22.6.4 Design Implications
Reference
Bibliography
PART V THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY
23 Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC): Causes and Mechanisms
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Fundamentals of TLC
23.2.1 Causes of TLC
23.2.2 Characteristics of TLC
23.2.3 Mechanisms of TLC
23.3 Summary: Overall TLC Characteristics in CO2/H2S Environments
References
24 Management of Geohazard Loading during Pipeline Operation
Andy Young
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Nature of Hazards
24.2.1 Landslides
24.2.2 Seismic Hazards
24.2.3 Subsidence
24.2.4 Rivers
24.2.5 Erosion
24.2.6 Additional Geohazards
24.2.7 Morphoclimatic Zones
24.2.8 Other Sources of Loading
24.3 Regulations on Geohazard Management
24.4 Geohazards Management Plan
24.5 Hazard Identification
24.5.1 Inspection Methods
24.5.2 LiDAR Surveys
24.5.3 IMU Inspection
24.5.4 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Screening
24.5.5 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Examples
24.5.6 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Construction
24.5.7 Prioritization of Sites
24.5.8 Use of Bending Strain in Crack Management
24.6 Hazard Evaluation
24.6.1 Ground Model
24.6.2 Performance Limits
24.6.3 Strain Gauges and IMU
24.6.4 Structural Calculations
24.6.5 Axial Loading
24.6.7 Estimation of Risk
24.7 Hazard Mitigation
24.7.1 General
24.7.2 Ground Movement Monitoring
24.7.3 Pipe Monitoring
References
25 Climate Change, Pipeline Corrosion, and Integrity Management
Binder Singh
25.1 Introduction
25.2 ALARP Factor
25.3 Natural or Man-Made?
25.3.1 Swiss Cheese Model
25.4 Engineering Steel and Infrastructure
25.5 Reasons for Optimism
25.6 Discussion and Closing Remarks
Caveat and Acknowledgements
Appendix 25.A Acronyms, Definitions, and Criteria
Appendix 25.B Main Corrosion Terms: Modes and Mechanisms
References
Bibliography
26 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil
Homero Castaneda, Hui Wang, and Omar Rosas
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Background
26.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines
26.3.1 Multiscale Factors Influencing External Corrosion Related to Soil Properties and Conditions
26.3.2 Water Coverage due to Vapor Transportation and Drainage
26.3.3 pH of Soils
26.3.4 Chlorides and Sulfates in Soils
26.3.5 Differential Aeration Corrosion Cells
26.3.6 Microorganisms in Soils
26.3.7 Redox Potential
26.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments
26.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents
26.6 Monitoring and Inspection for Corrosion Characterization under Multiscale Conditions
References
27 Knowledge- and Data-Driven External Corrosion Modeling in Pipelines
Hui Wang, Homero Castaneda, and Sreelakshmi Sreeharan
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Background
27.3 Model Framework and Theory
27.3.1 Workflow for CIPS Data Analysis
27.3.2 Review of Clustering Analysis for Identifying Heterogeneity of Soil Corrosivity
27.3.3 Close Interval Potential Survey and Wavelet Transform
27.3.4 Bayesian Convolutional Neural Network (BCNN)
27.3.5 Reliability Analysis
27.4 Model Application
27.4.1 General Information
27.4.2 Clustering Results
27.4.3 BCNN Results
27.5 Limitations of the Approach
27.6 Conclusion
References
28 Electrochemical Noise to Monitor Corrosion of a Coated Metal
Sarah Leeds
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Protective Coatings
28.1.2 History of Electrochemical Noise
28.1.3 What is Electrochemical Noise?
28.2 Electrochemical Noise Method
28.2.1 ENM Equipment and Measurement
28.2.2 Initial study on Portable ENM development
28.2.3 ENM Configuration
28.2.4 ENM Study of a Standard Metal Item
28.2.5 ECN Test Measurements on a Good and a Poor Coating
28.3 Applications of ECN
28.3.1 Examples of the Application of Electrochemical Noise
Acknowledgments
References
29 Telluric Influence on Pipelines
David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference
29.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity
29.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity
29.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields
29.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment
29.6.1 Geomagnetic Activity
29.6.2 Earth Conductivity Structure
29.6.3 Pipeline Response
29.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects
29.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions
29.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
30 Factors Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking and Typical Growth Rates
B N Leis
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Research Concerning the Factors Controlling SCC
30.2.1 Early Years through Present-Day: The Roles of Temperature and Potential
30.2.2 Active-Passive Cracking from Smooth Surfaces: The 'Free-Surface Effect'
30.2.3 Effect of Stress: Thresholds and Cracking Speeds for High-pH SCC
30.2.4 Transition from Initiation and Early Growth to Macrocrack Propagation
30.3 Factors Controlling SCC - Service vs Laboratory Cracking
30.4 Quantifying a Bathtub Speed-Life Curve for High-pH SCC
30.4.1 The Bathtub Curve and Its Adaptation to SCC
30.4.2 Simulated Bathtub Life Curves for Susceptible and Resistant Pipe Steels
30.4.3 Incubation
30.4.4 Broadening the ACS Database for Field Cracking
30.4.5 Observations and Practical Takeaways
30.5 Emergence of NN-pH SCC: Its Traits vs High-pH SCC
30.6 Industry Guidance on Crack Speed and the Incidence of SCC
30.6.1 Cracking Speed
30.6.2 Where and When SCC Might Be Anticipated
30.7 Interface between Integrity and Condition Assessment
30.7.1 Background
30.7.2 Detection and Sizing SCC
30.7.3 Reporting Thresholds - Analysis, Implications, and Takeaways
30.8 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
31 Processes for High-pH and Near-Neutral-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking
B N Leis
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Imaging SCC and Related Observations
31.2.1 SCC Imaged along Fracture Surfaces
31.2.2 SCC Imaged on Cross-Sections
31.2.3 SCC Imaged on the OD Surface
31.2.4 Perspective Imaging
31.2.5 Summary
31.3 Compendium of SCC Images: Observations and Discussion
31.3.1 Cracking Imaged on the Pipe OD Surface
31.3.2 Crack Interaction and Coalescence
31.3.3 Fracture Surfaces: Rupture Origins versus Leaks and Stable Cracking
31.3.4 Cracking Imaged in Metallographic Cross-Sections
31.4 Crack Initiation and Growth Behavior on Pipelines
31.4.1 Insights into the Initiation and Early Growth Processes
31.4.2 Crack Growth into the Pipe Wall
31.4.3 Trending the Phenomenology of Field Cracking
31.4.4 Closure between Field Phenomenology and Laboratory-Based Modeling
31.4.5 Effects of Crack Blunting - Implications for Hydrotesting and Dormancy
31.4.6 Blunting and Other Effects that Trace to Localized Corrosion
31.4.7 Dormancy and Intermittent Growth
31.5 Summary and Key Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
32 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Jason S. Lee and Brenda J. Little
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Materials
32.3 Microorganisms
32.3.1 Water
32.3.2 Electron Donors and Acceptors
32.3.3 Nutrients
32.4 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines
32.4.1 Types of Pipelines
32.4.2 Detection, Monitoring, and Diagnosing
32.4.3 Modeling
32.4.4 Control
32.5 External Corrosion of Pipelines
32.5.1 Types of Pipelines
32.5.2 Detection, Monitoring, and Diagnosing
32.5.3 Modeling
32.5.4 Control
32.6 Conclusions
References
33 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines
Robert E. Melchers
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Asset Management and Prediction
33.3 Pitting
33.3.1 Terminology
33.3.2 Initiation and Nucleation of Pits
33.3.3 Development of Pitting
33.3.4 Biological Influences
33.3.5 Trends in Corrosion with Time
33.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth
33.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development
33.6 Structural Reliability
33.6.1 Formulation
33.6.2 Failure Conditions
33.7 Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth
33.7.1 The Gumbel Distribution
33.7.2 Dependence between Pit Depths
33.7.3 EV Distribution for Deep Pits
33.7.4 Implications for Reliability Analysis
33.8 Pitting at Welds
33.8.1 Short-Term Exposures
33.8.2 Estimates of Long-Term Pitting Development
33.8.3 EV Statistics for Weld Pit Depth
33.9 Case Study-Water Injection Pipelines
33.10 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
34 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation
Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Dent Formation Process and Types of Dents
34.2.1 Dent Formation Process
34.2.2 Types of Dents
34.2.3 Coincident Features
34.3 In-Line-Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.3.1 Geometry (Caliper) Sensing Technologies
34.3.2 Coincident Damage Sensing (Dent with Metal Loss) Technologies
34.3.3 Capabilities and Performance of the In-Line-Inspection Technologies for Detection, Discrimination and Sizing of Mechanical Damage
34.3.4 Closing Remarks
34.4 Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.4.1 In-Ditch LaserScan Technology
34.4.2 Application of the Improved In-Ditch Measurement Technology
34.5 Assessment of Severity of Mechanical Damage
34.5.1 Regulatory and Industry Standard Guidance
34.5.2 Depth-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.3 Static Strain-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.4 A Combined Strain-Based and MFL-Based Approach to Evaluate Dent with Metal Loss
34.5.5 Dynamic Strain-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.6 Fatigue-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.6 Mitigation and Repairs
34.6.1 Improved Strain-Based Dent Severity Criteria - Alternatives
34.6.2 Repairs
34.7 Continued Challenges
References
35 Sulfide Stress Cracking
Russell D. Kane
35.1 Introduction
35.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking?
35.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines
35.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms
35.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC
35.5.1 Availability of Liquid Water
35.5.2 pH and H2S Partial Pressure
35.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels
35.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC
References
36 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service
Russell D. Kane
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC
36.2.1 Environmental Variables in FGE
36.2.2 Metallurgical Variables
36.2.3 Mechanical Variables
36.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC
36.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC
36.4.1 Identification
36.4.2 Inspection
36.4.3 Mitigation
36.5 Path Forward
References
Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers
37 AC Corrosion
Lars Vendelbo Nielsen
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Basic Understanding
37.2.1 The Spread Resistance
37.2.2 The Effect of AC on DC Polarization
37.2.3 The Vicious Circle of AC Corrosion-Mechanistic Approach
37.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management
37.3.1 Criteria
37.3.2 Current Criteria
37.3.3 Mitigation Measures
37.3.4 Monitoring and Management
References
Bibliography
38 Erosion-Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley,
Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon,
Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Solid Particle Erosion
38.3 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2 Environment with Sand
38.4 Erosion-Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron Carbonate Erosivity
38.4.1 CO2 Partial Pressure
38.4.2 pH
38.4.3 Temperature
38.4.4 Flow Velocity
38.4.5 Supersaturation
38.4.6 Erosion of Scale
38.4.7 Erosion-Corrosion
38.4.8 Erosion-Corrosion Model Development
38.5 Erosion-Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
38.5.1 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steels versus CRAs
38.5.2 Erosion-Corrosion with CRAs under High Erosivity Conditions
38.5.3 Repassivation of CRAs
38.5.4 Effect of Microstructure and Crystallography on Erosion-Corrosion
38.5.5 Summary
38.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion-Corrosion
38.6.1 Effect of Sand Erosion on Chemical Inhibition
38.6.2 Modeling and Prediction of Inhibited Erosion-Corrosion
38.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
39 Black Powder in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Abdelmounam M. Sherik
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Impacts on Operations and Customers
39.3 Internal Corrosion of Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines
39.3.1 Sources of Moisture
39.3.2 Formation Mechanisms
39.3.3 Formation Rate
39.4 Analysis Techniques
39.4.1 Sample Collection
39.4.2 Test Methods
39.5 Black Powder Movement
39.6 Erosive Properties of Black Powder
39.7 Black Powder Management Methods
39.7.1 Removal Strategies
39.7.2 Prevention Strategy
39.8 Monitoring Black Powder
39.9 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder
39.9.1 Worker Protection and Contamination Control
39.10 Solutions
39.11 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
PART VI PROTECTION
40 Mitigating Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC) Using Corrosion Inhibitors: Types and Application Methods
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Inhibitors Used to Mitigate TLC
40.2.1 Amine-Based Inhibitors
40.2.2 Imidazoline-Based Inhibitors
40.2.3 Thiol-Based Inhibitors
40.2.4 Monoethylene Glycol-Based Inhibitors
40.3 Application Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors under TLC Conditions
40.3.1 Continuous or Periodic Injection of Inhibitors into the Flow Stream
40.3.2 Conventional Batch Treatments with or without Pigs
40.3.3 Inhibitor Application with Foams or Gels
40.3.4 Applications of Inhibitors with Specialty Pigs
40.3.5 Comparison of Inhibitor-Application Methods
References
41 External Coatings
Doug Waslen
41.1 Introduction and Background
41.2 Coating Performance
41.2.1 Needs Assessment
41.3 Product Testing
41.3.1 Cathodic Disbondment Resistance
41.3.2 Adhesion
41.3.3 Flexibility
41.3.4 Aging
41.3.5 Temperature Rating
41.3.6 Damage Resistance
41.3.7 Cure
41.3.8 Electrical Isolation
41.4 Standards and Application Specification
41.4.1 Quality Assurance
41.5 Field-Applied Coatings
41.6 Coating Types and Application
41.6.1 Fusion Bond Epoxy
41.6.2 Extruded Olefins
41.6.3 Liquid Epoxy and Urethane
41.6.4 Composite Coatings
41.6.5 Girth Weld Coatings
41.6.6 Specialty Coatings
41.6.7 Repair Coatings
Reference
42 Thermoplastic Liners For Oilfield Pipelines
James F. Mason
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Codes and Standards
42.3 The Installation Process
42.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects
42.5 Liner Materials
42.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner
42.7 Lined Pipeline Systems-Application Examples
42.7.1 Liners in Hydrocarbon Flow Lines
42.7.2 Grooved PE Liners
42.7.3 Liners in a Reeled, Water Injection Pipeline
42.7.4 Liners in Sour Gas and Gas Condensate Pipelines
42.7.5 PA11 Liners in Sour Gas Pipelines
References
43 Cathodic Protection
Sarah Leeds
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection
43.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection
43.3.1 Mechanism of Cathodic Protection
43.3.2 E-pH Pourbaix Diagram
43.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied
43.4.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection System
43.4.2 Sacrificial Anode Design
43.4.3 Anode Material
43.4.4 Impressed Current System
43.4.5 Sacrificial Anode versus Impressed Current Systems
43.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection
43.5.1 Current Requirement for a Cathodic Protection System
43.5.2 What is the Most Economical Way for Supplying Current?
43.5.3 How Is the Protective Current Distributed over the Structure?
43.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection
43.6.1 Beneficial Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in Conjunction with Coatings
43.6.2 Adverse Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in Conjunction with Coatings
43.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems
43.7.1 Commissioning of Cathodic Protection System
43.7.2 Monitoring Test Stations (Test Points)
43.7.3 Annual Compliance Surveys
43.7.4 Direct Current Voltage Gradient Surveys-DCVG
43.7.5 %IR Severity
43.7.6 Coating Fault Grading
43.7.7 Close Interval Potential Surveys - CIPS/CIS
43.7.8 Soil Resistivity
43.7.9 Corrosion Coupons
43.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria
43.8.1 ?850mV versus Cu/CuSO4 with the Cathodic Protection Current Applied Criterion
43.8.2 Polarized Potential of ?850mV Measured to a Cu/CuSO4 Reference Electrode Criterion
43.8.3 100mV Polarization Criterion
43.8.4 Net Current Flow Criterion
43.8.5 Use of Criteria
References
PART VII INSPECTION AND MONITORING
44 Using Cathodic Protection for Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Damage and Interference
Gerard Huss, Carine Lacroix, Eric Parizot, and David Xu
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Background
44.3 Testing Procedure and Process
44.3.1 Theory
44.3.2 Proof of Concept
44.3.3 Other Parameters
44.3.4 Demonstrator
44.4 Real-Time Detection of an Electrical Short between a Pipeline and Its Casing
44.5 Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Aggression on a Pipeline
44.6 Real-Time Detection of a Lightning Strike
44.7 Discussion
References
45 Airborne LiDAR for Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection
Ashwin Yerasi
45.1 Introduction
45.2 LiDAR Measurements
45.3 Wavelength Bands
45.4 Operational Techniques
45.4.1 DIAL Principle
45.4.2 TDLAS Principle
45.5 Ancillary Components
45.6 Inspection Report
45.7 LiDAR Developments for Natural Gas Pipeline Leak Surveillance
Appendix 45.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
References
46 3D-Geolocalization by Magnetometry Using UAS: A Novel Method for Buried Pipeline Mapping and Bending Strain Assessment
Mehdi M. LAICHOUBI, Hamza KELLA BENNANI, Ludovic Berthelot, Vincent BENET, Miaohang HU, Michel PINET, and Samir TAKILLAH
46.1 Introduction
46.2 3D-Localisation and Depth of Cover Assessment
46.3 Materials and Methods
46.4 Case Study and Operating Procedure
46.5 Performance of the 3D-Localisation
46.6 Generalized Study on Eight GRTgaz Pipeline Spots
46.7 Bending Strain Assessment
46.8 Drone-Based Bending Strain (DBBS) Case Study
46.9 Conclusion
References
47 Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring
Nageswara Lalam and Ruishu Wright
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS)
47.3 Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)
47.4 Distributed Chemical Sensing for Corrosion and Corrosivity Monitoring
47.5 Challenges and Opportunities
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 Direct Assessment
John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski
48.1 Introduction
48.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA)
48.2.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.2.2 Strengths
48.2.3 Limitations
48.2.4 Status of Standard
48.2.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.2.6 Where ECDA Technique Is Headed
48.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA)
48.3.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.3.2 Strengths
48.3.3 Limitations
48.3.4 Status of Standard
48.3.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.3.6 Where SCCDA Technique Is Headed
48.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA)
48.4.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.4.2 Dry Gas ICDA
48.4.3 Wet Gas ICDA
48.4.4 Liquid Petroleum ICDA
48.4.5 Multiphase Flow ICDA
48.4.6 Strengths
48.4.7 Limitations
48.4.8 Status of Standards
48.4.9 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.4.10 Where ICCA Technique Is Headed
References
49 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
Daniel E. Powell
49.1 Introduction-Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
49.1.1 Corrosion-A Definition
49.1.2 Corrosion and Use of Coupons and ER Probes as Integrity Management Tools
49.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion Probes
49.2.1 Metal Coupons
49.2.2 Electrical Resistance Probes
49.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within Pipelines
49.3.1 Placement of the Corrosion Monitoring Point on a Pipeline
49.3.2 Orientation of the Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within a Pipeline
49.4 Monitoring Results "Drive" Chemical Treatment and Maintenance Pigging Programs
49.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
49.5.1 Precision of UT, RT, or MFL Nondestructive Inspection Techniques
49.5.2 Typical Exposure Periods for Coupons or ER Probes to Detect Active Corrosion
49.5.3 Relative Time for Coupons, ER Probes, or Inspection Techniques to Detect Active Corrosion
49.6 Seek Consistency between Internal Corrosion Monitoring and NDT Results - Confirm Trends
49.7 Look for Consistency: Fluid Sample Analysis Should Complement and Verify Monitoring Results
49.7.1 Identify Potential Sample Collection Points Nearby and on Same Production Stream
49.7.2 Sample Analysis Variables Commonly Assessed
49.8 Summary
49.9 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms from NACE 3T199 (c) NACE International 2012
References
50 In-Line Inspection (ILI) ("Intelligent Pigging")
Neb I. Uzelac
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management
50.3 Running ILI Tools
50.3.1 Tool Type Selection
50.3.2 Making Sure the Tool Fits the Pipeline
50.3.3 Conducting the Survey
50.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose
50.4.1 Geometry (Deformation) Tools
50.4.2 Mapping/GPS Tools
50.4.3 Metal Loss Tools
50.4.4 Crack Detection
50.4.5 Other
50.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification
50.6 Integrating ILI Data
Appendix 50.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire (Nonmandatory)
References
Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content
51 Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
Konrad Reber
51.1 The Inspection Challenge in Offshore Pipelines
51.2 Internal Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
51.3 External Inspection Methods for Subsea Pipelines
51.3.1 Deployment of External Inspection Tool
51.3.2 Examples of External Inspection Devices
51.4 Inspection of Risers
51.5 Conclusions
References
52 Tethered Inspection of Riser System for Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T.-S. Kristiansen, and U. Schneider
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Tethered Tool Principle
52.3 Case Study: 10-Inch Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks
52.4 The Reinspection Project
52.5 Summary and Benefits
Reference
53 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection
KONRAD REBER
53.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing
53.1.1 Introduction
53.1.2 How Eddy Current Testing (ECT) Works
53.1.3 Limitations for Pipeline Inspection
53.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing
53.2.1 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing (RFEC)
53.2.2 Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) Testing
53.2.3 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (SLOFEC (TM), MEC (TM), Magcontrol (TM))
53.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection
53.3.1 Standard EC Applications
53.3.2 Remote Field and Low Frequency Testing
53.3.3 Pulsed Eddy Current Applications
53.3.4 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (MEC (TM), SLOFEC (TM))
References
54 Unpiggable Pipelines
Tom Steinvoorte
54.1 Introduction
54.1.1 What Is an Unpiggable Pipeline?
54.1.2 The Main Challenges
54.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach
54.2.1 Pipeline Modification
54.2.2 Cable-Operated Inspection
54.2.3 Modification of Existing Tools
54.2.4 Self-Propelled Inspection
54.2.5 Selection Process
54.3 Free-Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections
54.3.1 Bidirectional Inspection
54.3.2 ILI Tools for Launch Valve Operation
54.3.3 Low-Pressure Inspection of Gas Pipelines
54.3.4 Multi-Diameter Inspection
54.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions
54.4.1 UT-Based Crawlers
54.4.2 MFL-Based Crawlers
54.4.3 Others
References
Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information
55 In-The-Ditch Pipeline Inspection
Greg Zinter
55.1 Overview
55.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines
55.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program
55.3.1 Safety
55.3.2 Verification and Advancement of Technology
55.4 Pipeline Coatings
55.4.1 Asphalt or Coal Tar Enamel
55.4.2 Tape Wrap
55.4.3 Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE)
55.5 Types of Anomalies
55.5.1 Introduction
55.5.2 Volumetric
55.5.3 Planar
55.5.4 Geometric
55.6 NDE Measurement Technologies
55.6.1 Visual Assessment
55.6.2 Manual Measurement
55.6.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection
55.6.4 Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)
55.6.5 Laser Profilometry
55.7 Excavation Package
55.8 Data Collection
55.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment
55.10 Data Management
55.10.1 Quality Control
55.10.2 Reporting
55.11 Recent Technological Developments
55.11.1 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT)
55.11.2 Structured Light
55.11.3 Ultrasonic
55.11.4 Eddy Current
55.12 Summary
Acknowledgments
Reference
Bibliography
56 Flaw Assessment
Ted L. Anderson
56.1 Overview
56.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental?
56.1.2 Material Properties for Flaw Assessment
56.1.3 Effect of Notch Acuity
56.2 Assessing Metal Loss
56.3 Crack Assessment
56.3.1 The Log-Secant Model for Longitudinal Cracks
56.3.2 The Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD)
56.3.3 Pressure Cycle Fatigue Analysis
56.4 Dents
References
57 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities
Greg Szuch, Mike Reed, and Keith Leewis
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Elements of a F-IMP
57.2.1 Scope of the Program
57.2.2 Goals of the Program
57.2.3 Threat Identification/Management
57.2.4 Risk Assessment/Management
57.2.5 Monitoring Inspections and Integrity Assessments
57.2.6 Quality Control
57.2.7 Communications
57.3 Building a Facility Integrity Plan
57.3.1 Where to Start?
57.3.2 Continuous Improvement
57.4 Final Thoughts
References
Bibliography: Essential Reading
58 Pipeline Geohazard Detection Using Satellite InSAR
Murray Down and Jon Leighton
58.1 Introduction: Why InSAR for Pipelines
58.2 Satelllite InSAR Simplified
58.2.1 Line of Sight
58.2.2 Imaging Perspectives
58.2.3 Single-Look vs Dual-Look
58.2.4 Geometric Distortion
58.2.5 Coherence
58.2.6 Permafrost
58.3 Specifying InSAR Requirements
58.3.1 Data
58.3.2 Historical Analysis
Bibliography
59 Integrity Management of Pipelines with Cracking
Michael Palmer
59.1 Introduction
59.2 What Are Cracks and How Do We Find Them?
59.2.1 Key Learning Points
59.3 Integrity Assessment of Cracks
59.3.1 Assessment Inputs
59.3.2 Assessment Methods
59.3.3 Crack Growth
59.3.4 Key Learning Points
59.4 What Can Be Done to Manage the Integrity of a Pipeline with Cracks?
59.4.1 Understanding the Threat
59.4.2 Integrity Management Tools
59.4.3 Long-Term Integrity Management
59.4.4 Key Learning Points
References
PART VIII MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT, REUSE, AND ABANDONMENT
60 Hydrogen and the Energy Transition
Neil Gallon and Adrian Horsley
60.1 Introduction
60.1.1 Colorful Hydrogen
60.1.2 Current Hydrogen Demand
60.1.3 The Future of Hydrogen
60.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
60.3 Designing or Repurposing a Hydrogen Pipeline
60.3.1 Materials of Construction
60.3.2 Design Pressure
60.3.3 Construction Welding
60.3.4 Repurposing of Pipelines to Hydrogen
60.4 Differences in the Integrity Management Approach between Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipelines
60.4.1 Probability of Failure
60.4.2 Consequence
60.4.3 Implications for Integrity Management in Hydrogen
References
61 Pipeline Cleaning
Randy L. Roberts
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Contaminates
61.3 Progressive Pigging
61.4 Pig Types
61.4.1 Poly Foam
61.4.2 Unibody
61.4.3 Steel Mandrel
61.4.4 Polyurethanes
61.5 Durometer
61.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning
61.7 On-Line or Off-Line
61.8 Cleaning a Pipeline
61.8.1 Typical Pigging Procedures
61.8.2 Pipeline Cleaners and Diluents
61.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be?
61.9.1 Single Diameter Pipelines
61.9.2 Multi-Diameter Pipelines
61.10 Summary
References
62 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure
Brian N. Leis
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Background
62.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline Construction
62.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for "Older" Pipelines
62.4.1 System Expansion and Construction Era
62.4.2 Qualitative Assessment of Construction Era and Incident Frequency
62.4.3 Quantitative Assessment of Construction Era and Incident Frequency
62.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, and Regulations
62.5.1 Pipeline Codes and Standards
62.5.2 Pipeline Regulations
62.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines
62.6.1 "Early" Construction Practices
62.6.2 "Vintage" Construction Practices-An Era of Change
62.6.3 Summary and a Brief Look Forward at the "Modern" Construction Era
62.7 Management Approach and Challenges
62.7.1 Threat Identification and Assessment
62.7.2 Inspection and Condition Monitoring
62.7.3 Life-Cycle Management
62.8 Closure
Acknowledgments
References
63 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves
William A. Bruce, Melissa Gould, and John Kiefner
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Background
63.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves
63.3.1 Type A Sleeves (Reinforcing)
63.3.2 Type B Sleeves (Pressure Containing)
63.3.3 Installation and Inspection of Full-Encirclement Sleeves
63.3.4 Defect Repair Using Composite Materials
63.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced Composite Repairs
63.4.1 Applicability to Various Defect Types
63.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
63.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline
63.5.1 Primary Concerns
63.5.2 Preventing Burnthrough
63.5.3 Preventing Hydrogen Cracking
63.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
64 Pipeline Repair
Robert Smyth and David Futch
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Background
64.3 Defect Identification
64.4 Safety
64.5 Protocols
64.6 Recoat
64.7 Pipe Replacement
64.8 Grinding/Sanding
64.9 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves, Type A and B
64.10 Epoxy-Filled Sleeves
64.11 Steel Compression Sleeves
64.12 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves
64.12.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair
64.13 Thin Sheet Steel Coil Wrap
64.14 Hot Tapping
64.15 Direct Deposition Welding
64.16 Mechanical Clamps
64.17 Temporary Repairs
64.18 Applicability to Various Defect Types
References
65 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup
Merv Fingas
65.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview
65.1.1 How Often Do Spills Occur?
65.1.2 Pipelines
65.2 Response to Oil Spills
65.2.1 Oil Spill Contingency Plans
65.2.2 Activation of Contingency Plans
65.2.3 Training
65.2.4 Supporting Studies and Sensitivity Mapping
65.2.5 Oil Spill Cooperatives
65.2.6 The Effectiveness of Cleanup
65.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties
65.3.1 The Composition of Oil
65.3.2 Properties of Oil
65.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment
65.4.1 An Overview of Weathering
65.4.2 Evaporation
65.4.3 Emulsification and Water Uptake
65.4.4 Biodegradation
65.4.5 Spreading
65.4.6 Movement of Oil Slicks on Water
65.4.7 Sinking and Over Washing
65.4.8 Spill Modeling
65.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills
65.5.1 Sampling and Laboratory Analysis
65.5.2 Detection and Surveillance
65.6 Containment on Water
65.6.1 Types of Booms and Their Construction
65.6.2 Uses of Booms
65.6.3 Boom Failures
65.6.4 Sorbent Booms and Barriers
65.7 Oil Recovery on Water
65.7.1 Skimmers
65.7.2 Sorbents
65.7.3 Manual Recovery
65.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal
65.8.1 Temporary Storage
65.8.2 Pumps
65.8.3 Vacuum Systems
65.8.4 Recovery from the Water Subsurface
65.8.5 Separation
65.8.6 Decontamination
65.8.7 Disposal
65.9 Spill-Treating Agents
65.10 In Situ Burning
65.10.1 Advantages
65.10.2 Disadvantages
65.10.3 Ignition and What Will Burn
65.10.4 Burn Efficiency and Rates
65.10.5 Use of Containment
65.10.6 Emissions from Burning Oil
65.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration
65.11.1 Behavior of Oil on Shorelines
65.11.2 Types of Shorelines
65.11.3 Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT)
65.11.4 Cleanup Methods
65.11.5 Recommended Cleanup Methods
65.12 Oil Spills on Land
65.12.1 Behavior of Oil on Land
65.12.2 Movement of Oil on Land Surfaces
65.12.3 Habitats/Ecosystems
65.12.4 Cleanup of Surface Spills
65.12.5 Natural Recovery
65.12.6 Removal of Excess Oil
65.12.7 Other Cleanup Methods
65.12.8 Cleanup of Subsurface Spills
References
66 Pipeline Abandonment
Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes
66.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment?
66.2 Abandonment Planning
66.2.1 Removal or Abandon in Place
66.2.2 Consultation
66.2.3 Abandonment Plan Outline
66.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities
66.3.1 Contamination Remediation
66.3.2 Pipeline Cleaning
66.3.3 Removal of Facilities and Apparatus
66.3.4 Water Bodies
66.3.5 Transportation and Utility Crossings
66.3.6 Right-of-Way Restoration
66.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues
66.4.1 Ground Subsidence
66.4.2 Pipe Deterioration and Collapse
66.4.3 Pipe Exposure
66.4.4 Water Conduit Effect
66.4.5 Slope Stability
66.5 Post-Abandonment Care
66.5.1 Monitoring and Maintenance
66.5.2 Land Use Changes
66.5.3 Liability
66.5.4 Financial Resources
References
PART IX RISK MANAGEMENT
67 Risk Management of Pipelines
Lynne C. Kaley
67.1 Overview
67.1.1 Risk-Based Inspection for Pipelines
67.1.2 Scope
67.1.3 Risk Analysis
67.1.4 The RBI Approach
67.1.5 Risk Reduction and Inspection Planning
67.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches
67.2.1 API Industry Standards for RBI
67.2.2 Basic Risk Categories
67.2.3 Alternative RBI Approaches
67.2.4 Qualitative Approaches to RBI
67.2.5 Quantitative RBI Analysis
67.3 Development of Inspection Programs
67.3.1 Introduction
67.3.2 Inspection Techniques and Effectiveness
67.3.3 Damage Types
67.3.4 Probability of Detection
67.3.5 Reducing Risk through Inspection
67.4 Putting RBI into Practice
67.4.1 A Continuum of Approach
67.4.2 Qualitative versus Quantitative Examples
67.4.3 Qualitative Example
67.4.4 Quantitative Example
67.4.5 Optimizing the Inspection Program
67.4.6 Example Problem Conclusions
67.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies
67.5.1 Summary
67.5.2 Ten Criteria for Selecting the Most Appropriate Level of RBI
67.5.3 Justifying Costs
References
Bibliography
68 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management with Lessons Learned
Binder Singh and Ben Poblete
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions
68.3 Life Cycle
68.3.1 Fitness for Corrosion Service
68.3.2 Conventional and Performance-Based Corrosion Management
68.3.3 Corrosion Risk-Based Performance Goals
68.3.4 Inherent Safe Design (ISD) and Project Phases of a Production Development
68.3.5 Link between ISD and Corrosion Management
68.3.6 Risk-Based Inspection and Monitoring
68.3.7 Life Extension
68.4 Case Histories
68.4.1 Fit-for-Purpose Solutions
68.4.2 Methods and Techniques of Failure Analysis
68.4.3 Failure Mechanisms and Excursions outside the Design Envelope
68.4.4 Corrosion and Integrity Risk
68.4.5 Corrosion Failures
68.4.6 Localized Corrosion Mechanisms in the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry
68.4.7 Pictorial Gallery of Localized Corrosion and Cracking
68.4.8 Failure Analysis Check Sheet Listing
68.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations
68.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring Methodologies
68.6.1 Risk and Reliability in the Corrosion Context
68.6.2 Safety Management Systems and Corrosion Risk
68.6.3 Formal or Structured Hazard or Risk Assessment
68.7 Lessons Learned, Recommendations, and Future Strategies
68.7.1 Lessons Learned - Update and Discussion
68.7.2 Recommendations and Future Strategies
Caveat and Acknowledgments
References
Bibliography
69 Pipeline Operational Intrusions
Errol R. A. Eccles
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Operations Management and Risk
69.3 Risk Assessment
69.3.1 High-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.2 Medium-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.3 Lower-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.4 Hazards and Controls
69.3.5 Risk Matrix
69.4 Operations Management
69.4.1 Standard Operating Procedures
69.4.2 Checklist
69.4.3 Shift Log
69.4.4 Shift Handover
69.5 Process Safety Management
69.5.1 Mechanical Integrity
69.6 Work Management
69.6.1 Planning
69.6.2 Scheduling and Prioritization
69.6.3 Risk Assessment for Work
69.6.4 Higher-Risk Work, Permitted Work
69.6.5 As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP)
69.6.6 Graphics
69.6.7 Icons
69.6.8 Lessons Learned
69.6.9 Information Technology
69.7 Emergency and Incident Management
69.8 Management of Change (MOC)
69.9 Competence
69.10 Risk Management
69.10.1 Safety Risk
69.10.2 Cumulative Risk
69.10.3 Risk Mitigation
69.10.4 Barrier Management
69.10.5 Example of Risks
69.11 Information Technology (IT)
69.11.1 Security and Visibility
69.11.2 Digital Risk Assessment
69.11.3 Lessons Learned
69.11.4 Searchability
69.11.5 Reporting
69.11.6 History
69.11.7 Printing
69.12 Summary
69.13 Terms and Definitions
Acknowledgments
References
PART X CASE HISTORIES
70 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking on Onshore Pipelines Driven by Cathodic Protection - Case Studies
Pablo Cazenave, Katina Jimenez, Ming Gao, and Ravi Krishnamurthy
70.1 Background
70.2 Investigation of a Gas Transmission Pipeline Failure in Argentina
70.2.1 Reconstruction of the Failed Pipes and Data Gathering
70.2.2 Environmental and Operational Assessment
70.2.3 Chemical and Mechanical Testing
70.2.4 Fractographic and Metallographic Evaluations
70.3 Mechanisms of Cracking
70.3.1 HAC and HIC
70.3.2 Comparison Between HAC and NNpHSCC Mechanisms
70.3.3 Hydrogen Evolution: Cathodic Protection vs Free Corrosion
70.3.4 Cathodic Protection and pH of the Electrolyte
70.3.5 Coating Disbondment and Cathodic Protection Shielding
70.3.6 Crack dormancy/blunting
70.4 Similar Cases in Europe, North America, and the Literature
70.4.1 Natural Gas Pipeline in Europe
70.4.2 Refined Products Pipeline in the USA
70.4.3 Similar Cases in Literature
70.5 Effects of CP-related Hydrogen on Other Types of Cracking
70.6 Mitigation strategies
70.7 Closing remarks
References
71 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study-Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions
Arnold L. Lewis II
71.1 Introduction
71.1.1 Statement of the Buckle/Collapse Problem
71.1.2 Observations
71.2 Study Conclusions
71.2.1 Conclusions for Sources of Hydrogen in an Annulus of a Pipeline Repair Sleeve
71.2.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from inside the Pipeline into an Annulus
71.2.3 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from outside the Repair Sleeve into an Annulus
71.2.4 Factors Affecting the Rate of Annulus Pressure Increase
71.2.5 Factors Affecting the Time Required for a Buckle/Collapse Failure
71.2.6 Main Sources and Considerations for Hydrogen Gas Trapped in the Annulus of a Pipeline Repair Sleeve
71.2.7 Solutions to Mitigate Buckle/Collapse Failures under Pipeline Repair Sleeves
71.3 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
72 Shell FLAGS Inspection Case Study
J. Nonemaker, T. Steinvoorte, and R. Subramanian
72.1 Introduction
72.2 The Challenge
72.3 The Solution
72.4 Field Work
72.5 Result
73 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multi-Diameter Pipelines - A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project
Luciano Baptista, Tom Steinvoorte, Stephan Harmsen, and Carlos Enrique Sabido
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Background
73.3 Challenge
73.4 Solution
73.5 Scope
73.6 Tool Design
73.6.1 Multi-Diameter Cleaning Tools
73.6.2 Key Design Features of the ILI Tool
73.7 Testing
73.7.1 Bypass Tests
73.7.2 Pump Tests
73.7.3 Pull Tests
73.8 Gauging and Inspection Runs
73.8.1 Key Challenges
73.8.2 Cleaning, Gauging, and Inspecting Route 2.1
73.9 Benefit
References
GLOSSARY
Part 1: Abbreviations
Part 2: Selected Terms
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
PART I DIGITALIZATION OF PIPELINES
1 Digital Future of Pipeline Integrity
Gaurav Singh
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Digital Integrity Framework
1.2.1 General Pipeline Integrity Framework
1.2.2 Digital Framework for Pipeline Integrity Management Systems
1.2.3 Data Management
1.2.4 Integrity Management
1.3 Fast Forward Digital Future Technologies
1.3.1 Integrity Data Warehouse
1.3.2 Descriptive Analytics: What Has Happened
1.3.3 Predictive Analytics: What Will Happen?
1.3.4 Use Case: Virtual ILI
1.3.5 Space-based Digital Asset Monitoring (Earth Observation)
1.3.6 Radar
1.3.7 SAR time Series
1.4 Technology Transition with Energy Transition
References
2 Cybersecurity and Safety Implications of Pipelines
Ben Miller and Jason Christopher
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Industrial Cybersecurity
2.3 The Industrial Cybersecurity Challenge
2.4 Industrial Intrusion Case Studies - A Short History
2.5 Industrial Cybersecurity Considerations for Pipeline Operations
2.5.1 Is It Safe?
2.5.2 Dependent Systems and the Systems-of-Systems View
2.5.3 Understanding Vulnerabilities and the Engineering Mindset
2.6 The Five ICS Cybersecurity Critical Controls
2.6.1 Control No. 1:ICS-Specific Incident Response Plan
2.6.2 Control No. 2:Defensible Architecture
2.6.3 Control No. 3:ICS Network Visibility and Monitoring
2.6.4 Control No. 4:Secure Remote Access
2.6.5 Control No. 5:Risk-Based Vulnerability Management Program
2.7 Getting Started: Common High-Impact Scenarios for Pipeline Operations
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Practical Applications of Machine Learning to Pipeline Integrity
Michael Gloven
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Machine Learning Fundamentals
3.2.1 Overview
3.2.2 Getting Started
3.2.3 Learning Methods
3.2.4 Supervised vs. Unsupervised Learning
3.2.5 Model Cross-Validation and Testing
3.2.6 Model Performance
3.2.7 Data and Sources
3.2.8 Data Quality
3.2.9 Special Considerations for Pipeline Networks
3.2.10 Data Pre-Processing
3.3 Supervised Learning - Classification
3.3.1 Third Party Damage Use Case
3.3.2 Training Data
3.3.3 Select Method and Learn Model
3.3.4 Model Testing
3.3.5 Confusion Matrix
3.3.6 Learning Curves
3.3.7 Predictor Importance
3.3.8 Apply Model & Application of Results
3.4 Supervised Learning - Regression
3.4.1 External Corrosion Growth Rate Use Case
3.4.2 Training Data
3.4.3 Select Method and Learn Model
3.4.4 Model Testing
3.4.5 Unity Plots
3.4.6 Learning Curve
3.4.7 Predictor Importance
3.4.8 Apply Model & Application of Results
3.5 Unsupervised Learning
3.5.1 SCC Susceptibility Use Case
3.5.2 Training Data
3.5.3 Cluster Analysis
3.5.4 Predictor Variance Analysis
3.5.5 Partition Analysis and Best-k
3.5.6 Perform k-means and Plot Analysis
3.6 Final Thoughts
3.7 Summary
References
Bibliography
4 Pipeline Corrosion Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning
Khairul Chowdhury, Binder Singh, and Shahidullah Kawsar
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Analysis Tool: Automated Predictive Analytics Computation Systems
4.3.1 Solution Methodology Using Machine Learning
4.4 Problem Example: Predicting Failure by External and Internal Corrosion
4.4.1 Historical Data
4.4.2 Analysis and Intelligence
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
PART II DESIGN
5 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines in a Low-Carbon Economy
Daniel Sandana
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CCUS: An Enabler of Decarbonization
5.2.1 Carbon Capture: Back to the Future
5.2.2 The CCUS Landscape Worldwide
5.2.3 Existing CO2 Pipelines
5.3 Transportation of CO2 by Pipeline: Operations
5.3.1 Properties of CO2 and Operational Considerations
5.3.2 Presence of Impurities and CO2 Compositions
5.3.3 Effect of Impurities on Transportation
5.4 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Key Integrity Challenges
5.4.1 Pipeline (Internal) Time-Dependent Threats
5.4.2 Fracture Control
5.4.3 Integrity Experience of Existing CO2 Pipelines and Cautions
5.5 Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines
5.5.1 Defining CO2 Stream Specifications
5.5.2 Understanding Line Pipe Material Properties for Fracture Control
5.5.3 Defining Integrity Baseline Condition and Confirming MAOP
5.5.4 Managing Safe Operations: Inspections
References
6 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS)
Katherine Jonsson, Ray Goodfellow, Douglas Evans, and Chitman Lutchman
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity
6.3 Regulatory Requirements
6.4 What is a PIMS?
6.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements
6.6 PIMS Function Map
6.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational
6.8 Do: Execute
6.9 Check: Assurance and Verification
6.10 Act: Management Review
6.11 Culture
6.12 Summary
References
7 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Rumi Mohammad, Ian Verhappen, and Ramin Vali
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SCADA Computer Servers
7.3 SCADA Computer Workstations
7.4 Hierarchy
7.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases
7.6 Fault Tolerance
7.7 Redundancy
7.8 High Availability
7.9 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems
7.10 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis
7.11 Incident Review and Replay
7.12 Data Quality
7.13 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover
7.14 Training
7.15 SCADA Security
7.16 Cybersecurity
7.16.1 Reference Architecture
7.16.2 Control Layer
7.16.3 Demilitarized Zone (DMZ)
7.16.4 Firewalls and Isolation
7.16.5 Cybersecurity Standards Sources
7.16.6 Management of Change
7.16.7 SCADA User Permissions and Area of Responsibility
7.16.8 Zero Trust
7.16.9 Web Connection
7.17 SCADA Standards
7.18 Pipeline Industry Applications
7.18.1 Leak Detection
7.18.2 Batch Tracking
7.18.3 Dynamic Pipeline Highlight
7.19 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
7.19.1 Overview of an ML AI Based Application
7.19.2 Predictive Flow Models
7.19.3 Optimization Engines
7.19.4 Decision Support and Autonomous Operations
7.20 Communication Media
7.20.1 Ethernet (Copper) Data Cable
7.20.2 Leased Line
7.20.3 Dial-Up Line
7.20.4 Optical Fiber
7.20.5 Radio Communications
7.20.6 License-Free Spectra
7.20.7 Licensed Radio
7.20.8 Microwave
7.20.9 Satellite
7.20.10 Cellular Data
7.20.11 Low-Data-Rate Wireless
7.21 Communications Infrastructure
7.22 Communications Integrity
7.23 RTUs and PLCs
7.24 Database
7.25 User-Defined Programs
7.26 RTU/PLC Integrity
7.27 Safety Systems
7.27.1 Safety Integrity Level (SIL)
7.27.2 Safety Instrumented System (SIS)
7.27.3 Black Channel
7.28 IOT/IIOT
7.29 Electrical Classification Compliance
7.29.1 Area Classifications
Acronyms, Abbreviations, Terms
Bibliography
8 Material Selection for Fracture Control
William Tyson
8.1 Overview of Fracture Control
8.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation
8.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation
8.4 Toughness Measurement
8.4.1 Toughness Measurement: Impact Tests
8.4.2 Toughness Measurement: J, CTOD, and CTOA
8.5 Current Status
References
9 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines
Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi
9.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts
9.1.1 Overview of Strain-Based Design
9.1.2 Deterministic versus Probabilistic Design Methods
9.1.3 Limit States
9.1.4 Displacement Control versus Load Control
9.1.5 Strain-Based Design Applications
9.2 Strain Demand
9.2.1 Overview
9.2.2 Challenging Environments and Strain Demand
9.2.3 Strain Levels and Analysis Considerations
9.3 Strain Capacity
9.3.1 Overview
9.3.2 Compressive Strain Capacity
9.3.3 Tensile Strain Capacity
9.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing
9.5 Summary
References
10 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines
Mavis Sika Okyere
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Design Pressure
10.2.1 Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure
10.2.2 Maximum Operating Pressure
10.2.3 Surge Pressure
10.2.4 Test Pressure
10.3 Design Factor
10.4 Determination of Components of Stress
10.4.1 Hoop and Radial Stresses
10.4.2 Longitudinal Stress
10.4.3 Shear Stress
10.4.4 Equivalent Stress
10.4.5 Limits of Calculated Stress
10.5 Fatigue
10.5.1 Fatigue Life
10.5.2 Fatigue Limit
10.5.3 S-N Curve
10.6 Expansion and Flexibility
10.6.1 Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors
10.7 Corrosion Allowance
10.7.1 Internal Corrosion Allowance
10.7.2 External Corrosion Allowance
10.7.3 Formulas
10.8 Pipeline Stiffness
10.8.1 Calculation of Pipeline Stiffness
10.8.2 Calculation of Induced Bending Moment
10.9 Pipeline Ovality
10.9.1 Brazier Effect
10.9.2 Ovality of a Buried Pipeline
10.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius
10.10.1 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Concrete
10.10.2 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Steel
10.10.3 Installation Condition
10.10.4 In-Service Condition
10.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure
10.11.1 Buried Installation
10.11.2 Above-Ground or Unburied Installation
10.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions
10.13 Summary
Appendix 10.A: Case Study
References
11 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications
Ayman Eltaher
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility
11.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications
11.3.1 Design Challenges
11.3.2 Stress Analysis Challenges
11.3.3 Materials and Manufacturing Challenges
11.4 Typical Pipe Properties
11.5 Technology Qualification
11.6 Additional Resources
11.7 Summary
References
12 Residual Stress in Pipelines
Douglas Hornbach and Paul Prevey
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 The Nature of Residual Stresses
12.1.2 Sources of Residual Stresses
12.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance
12.2.1 Fatigue
12.2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking
12.2.3 Corrosion Fatigue
12.2.4 Effects of Cold Working and Microscopic Residual Stresses
12.3 Residual Stress Measurement
12.3.1 Center Hole Drilling Method
12.3.2 Ring Core Method
12.3.3 Slitting and Slotting Method
12.3.4 Deep Hole Drill Method
12.3.5 Diffraction Methods
12.3.6 Synchrotron X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction: Full Stress Tensor Determination
12.3.7 Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Method
12.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses
12.4.1 Shot Peening
12.4.2 Roller or Ball Burnishing and Low Plasticity Burnishing
12.4.3 Laser Shock Peening
12.4.4 Thermal Stress Relief
12.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work
12.5.1 Case Study 1: Restoration of the Fatigue Performance of Corrosion and Fretting Damaged 4340 Steel
12.5.2 Case Study 2: Mitigating SCC in Stainless Steel Weldments
12.5.3 Case Study 3: Mitigation of Sulfide Stress Cracking in P110 Oil Field Coupling
12.5.4 Case Study 4: Improving Corrosion Fatigue Performance and Damage Tolerance of 410 Stainless Steel
12.5.5 Case Study 5: Improving the Fatigue Performance of Downhole Tubular Components
References
13 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity
Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis
13.2.1 Overview
13.2.2 Pipeline Routing
13.2.3 Geotechnical Investigations
13.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design
13.3.1 Overview
13.3.2 Physical Modeling
13.3.3 Computational Engineering Tools
13.3.4 Guidance on Best Practice to Enhance Computational Pipe/Soil Interaction Analysis
13.3.5 Emerging Research
13.3.6 Soil Constitutive Models
13.3.7 Advancing the State of Art into Engineering Practice through an Integrated Technology Framework
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
References
14 Human Factors
Lorna Harron
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What Is "Human Factors"?
14.3 The Human in the System
14.4 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors
14.4.1 Example Case Study
14.5 Human Factors and Decision Making
14.5.1 Information Receipt
14.5.2 Information Processing
14.6 Application of Human Factors Guidance
14.7 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making
14.7.1 Satisficing Heuristic
14.7.2 Cue Primacy and Anchoring
14.7.3 Selective Attention
14.7.4 Availability Heuristic
14.7.5 Representativeness Heuristic
14.7.6 Cognitive Tunneling
14.7.7 Confirmation Bias
14.7.8 Framing Bias
14.7.9 Management of Decision-Making Challenges
14.8 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry
14.9 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited
14.10 Tools and Methods
14.11 Summary
References
Bibliography
PART III NONMETALLIC PIPELINES
15 Nonmetallic Composite Pipelines
Niels Grigat, Stephan Koss, Ben Vollbrecht, Tim Moelling, Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum, and Thomas Gries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials
15.2.1 Composites
15.3 Manufacturing
15.3.1 Filament Winding
15.3.2 Braiding
15.3.3 Pultrusion
15.3.4 Joining Methods
15.4 Applications
15.5 Conclusion
References
PART IV MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION
16 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels
Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development
16.2.1 Thermomechanically Controlled Processing of Pipeline Steels
16.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels
16.3.1 Fracture of Pipeline Steels
16.3.2 Effect of Phase Transformation on the Texture Components
16.3.3 Effect of Austenite Recrystallization on Plate Texture
16.3.4 Effect of Austenite Pancaking on the Rolling Texture
16.3.5 Effect of Finish Rolling in the Intercritical Region
16.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
17 Pipe Manufacture-Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe
Christoph Kalwa
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Manufacturing Process
17.3 Quality Control Procedures
17.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions
17.5 Typical Fields of Application
18 Pipe Manufacture - Spiral Pipe
Franz Martin Knoop
18.1 Manufacturing Process
18.2 Quality Control Procedures
18.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions
18.4 Typical Fields of Applicability
References
19 Pipe Manufacture-Seamless Tube and Pipe
Rolf Kuemmerling and Klaus Kraemer
19.1 The Rolling Process
19.1.1 Introduction and History
19.1.2 Cross Rolling Technology
19.1.3 Pilger Rolling
19.1.4 Plug Rolling
19.1.5 Mandrel Rolling
19.1.6 Forging
19.1.7 Size Rolling and Stretch Reducing
19.2 Further Processing
19.2.1 Heat Treatment
19.2.2 Quality and In-Process Checks
19.2.3 Finishing Lines
References
20 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines
Nobuyuki Ishikawa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method
20.2.1 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Full-Scale Test
20.2.2 Standardized Laboratory Evaluation Method for HIC
20.2.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
20.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with HIC Resistance
20.3.1 Effect of Non-Metallic Inclusions
20.3.2 Effect of Center Segregation
20.3.3 Effect of Plate Manufacturing Condition
20.4 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with SSC Resistance under Severe Sour Conditions
20.4.1 SSC Failure Caused by Local Hard Zone
20.4.2 Effect of Surface Hardness on SSC
References
21 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity
David Dorling and James Gianetto
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Construction Welding Applications
21.2.1 Double-Joint Welding
21.2.2 Mainline Welding
21.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding
21.3 Non-destructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment
21.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification
21.4.1 Welding Codes and Standards
21.4.2 Welding Procedures
21.4.3 Welding Procedure Specification
21.4.4 Procedure Qualification Record
21.4.5 Qualification of Welders
21.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking
21.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design
21.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines
21.8 Pipeline Incidents and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action
Appendix 21.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
Appendix 21.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards
Acknowledgements
References
22 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity
Robert O'Grady
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation
22.2.1 Pipeline Installation Loading and Failure Modes
22.2.2 S-Lay Method
22.2.3 J-Lay Method
22.2.4 Reel-Lay Method
22.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation
22.3.1 Vessel Restrictions
22.3.2 Pipeline Integrity Criteria
22.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies
22.4.1 Global Installation Analysis
22.4.2 Methodologies
22.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore
22.5.1 Monitoring Process and Remedial Action
22.5.2 Monitoring Analysis Software
22.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation
22.6.1 Increased Tension and Potential for Local Buckling
22.6.2 Plastic Strains
22.6.3 Prolonged Fatigue Exposure
22.6.4 Design Implications
Reference
Bibliography
PART V THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY
23 Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC): Causes and Mechanisms
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Fundamentals of TLC
23.2.1 Causes of TLC
23.2.2 Characteristics of TLC
23.2.3 Mechanisms of TLC
23.3 Summary: Overall TLC Characteristics in CO2/H2S Environments
References
24 Management of Geohazard Loading during Pipeline Operation
Andy Young
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Nature of Hazards
24.2.1 Landslides
24.2.2 Seismic Hazards
24.2.3 Subsidence
24.2.4 Rivers
24.2.5 Erosion
24.2.6 Additional Geohazards
24.2.7 Morphoclimatic Zones
24.2.8 Other Sources of Loading
24.3 Regulations on Geohazard Management
24.4 Geohazards Management Plan
24.5 Hazard Identification
24.5.1 Inspection Methods
24.5.2 LiDAR Surveys
24.5.3 IMU Inspection
24.5.4 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Screening
24.5.5 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Examples
24.5.6 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Construction
24.5.7 Prioritization of Sites
24.5.8 Use of Bending Strain in Crack Management
24.6 Hazard Evaluation
24.6.1 Ground Model
24.6.2 Performance Limits
24.6.3 Strain Gauges and IMU
24.6.4 Structural Calculations
24.6.5 Axial Loading
24.6.7 Estimation of Risk
24.7 Hazard Mitigation
24.7.1 General
24.7.2 Ground Movement Monitoring
24.7.3 Pipe Monitoring
References
25 Climate Change, Pipeline Corrosion, and Integrity Management
Binder Singh
25.1 Introduction
25.2 ALARP Factor
25.3 Natural or Man-Made?
25.3.1 Swiss Cheese Model
25.4 Engineering Steel and Infrastructure
25.5 Reasons for Optimism
25.6 Discussion and Closing Remarks
Caveat and Acknowledgements
Appendix 25.A Acronyms, Definitions, and Criteria
Appendix 25.B Main Corrosion Terms: Modes and Mechanisms
References
Bibliography
26 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil
Homero Castaneda, Hui Wang, and Omar Rosas
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Background
26.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines
26.3.1 Multiscale Factors Influencing External Corrosion Related to Soil Properties and Conditions
26.3.2 Water Coverage due to Vapor Transportation and Drainage
26.3.3 pH of Soils
26.3.4 Chlorides and Sulfates in Soils
26.3.5 Differential Aeration Corrosion Cells
26.3.6 Microorganisms in Soils
26.3.7 Redox Potential
26.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments
26.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents
26.6 Monitoring and Inspection for Corrosion Characterization under Multiscale Conditions
References
27 Knowledge- and Data-Driven External Corrosion Modeling in Pipelines
Hui Wang, Homero Castaneda, and Sreelakshmi Sreeharan
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Background
27.3 Model Framework and Theory
27.3.1 Workflow for CIPS Data Analysis
27.3.2 Review of Clustering Analysis for Identifying Heterogeneity of Soil Corrosivity
27.3.3 Close Interval Potential Survey and Wavelet Transform
27.3.4 Bayesian Convolutional Neural Network (BCNN)
27.3.5 Reliability Analysis
27.4 Model Application
27.4.1 General Information
27.4.2 Clustering Results
27.4.3 BCNN Results
27.5 Limitations of the Approach
27.6 Conclusion
References
28 Electrochemical Noise to Monitor Corrosion of a Coated Metal
Sarah Leeds
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Protective Coatings
28.1.2 History of Electrochemical Noise
28.1.3 What is Electrochemical Noise?
28.2 Electrochemical Noise Method
28.2.1 ENM Equipment and Measurement
28.2.2 Initial study on Portable ENM development
28.2.3 ENM Configuration
28.2.4 ENM Study of a Standard Metal Item
28.2.5 ECN Test Measurements on a Good and a Poor Coating
28.3 Applications of ECN
28.3.1 Examples of the Application of Electrochemical Noise
Acknowledgments
References
29 Telluric Influence on Pipelines
David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference
29.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity
29.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity
29.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields
29.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment
29.6.1 Geomagnetic Activity
29.6.2 Earth Conductivity Structure
29.6.3 Pipeline Response
29.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects
29.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions
29.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
30 Factors Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking and Typical Growth Rates
B N Leis
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Research Concerning the Factors Controlling SCC
30.2.1 Early Years through Present-Day: The Roles of Temperature and Potential
30.2.2 Active-Passive Cracking from Smooth Surfaces: The 'Free-Surface Effect'
30.2.3 Effect of Stress: Thresholds and Cracking Speeds for High-pH SCC
30.2.4 Transition from Initiation and Early Growth to Macrocrack Propagation
30.3 Factors Controlling SCC - Service vs Laboratory Cracking
30.4 Quantifying a Bathtub Speed-Life Curve for High-pH SCC
30.4.1 The Bathtub Curve and Its Adaptation to SCC
30.4.2 Simulated Bathtub Life Curves for Susceptible and Resistant Pipe Steels
30.4.3 Incubation
30.4.4 Broadening the ACS Database for Field Cracking
30.4.5 Observations and Practical Takeaways
30.5 Emergence of NN-pH SCC: Its Traits vs High-pH SCC
30.6 Industry Guidance on Crack Speed and the Incidence of SCC
30.6.1 Cracking Speed
30.6.2 Where and When SCC Might Be Anticipated
30.7 Interface between Integrity and Condition Assessment
30.7.1 Background
30.7.2 Detection and Sizing SCC
30.7.3 Reporting Thresholds - Analysis, Implications, and Takeaways
30.8 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
31 Processes for High-pH and Near-Neutral-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking
B N Leis
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Imaging SCC and Related Observations
31.2.1 SCC Imaged along Fracture Surfaces
31.2.2 SCC Imaged on Cross-Sections
31.2.3 SCC Imaged on the OD Surface
31.2.4 Perspective Imaging
31.2.5 Summary
31.3 Compendium of SCC Images: Observations and Discussion
31.3.1 Cracking Imaged on the Pipe OD Surface
31.3.2 Crack Interaction and Coalescence
31.3.3 Fracture Surfaces: Rupture Origins versus Leaks and Stable Cracking
31.3.4 Cracking Imaged in Metallographic Cross-Sections
31.4 Crack Initiation and Growth Behavior on Pipelines
31.4.1 Insights into the Initiation and Early Growth Processes
31.4.2 Crack Growth into the Pipe Wall
31.4.3 Trending the Phenomenology of Field Cracking
31.4.4 Closure between Field Phenomenology and Laboratory-Based Modeling
31.4.5 Effects of Crack Blunting - Implications for Hydrotesting and Dormancy
31.4.6 Blunting and Other Effects that Trace to Localized Corrosion
31.4.7 Dormancy and Intermittent Growth
31.5 Summary and Key Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
32 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Jason S. Lee and Brenda J. Little
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Materials
32.3 Microorganisms
32.3.1 Water
32.3.2 Electron Donors and Acceptors
32.3.3 Nutrients
32.4 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines
32.4.1 Types of Pipelines
32.4.2 Detection, Monitoring, and Diagnosing
32.4.3 Modeling
32.4.4 Control
32.5 External Corrosion of Pipelines
32.5.1 Types of Pipelines
32.5.2 Detection, Monitoring, and Diagnosing
32.5.3 Modeling
32.5.4 Control
32.6 Conclusions
References
33 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines
Robert E. Melchers
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Asset Management and Prediction
33.3 Pitting
33.3.1 Terminology
33.3.2 Initiation and Nucleation of Pits
33.3.3 Development of Pitting
33.3.4 Biological Influences
33.3.5 Trends in Corrosion with Time
33.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth
33.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development
33.6 Structural Reliability
33.6.1 Formulation
33.6.2 Failure Conditions
33.7 Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth
33.7.1 The Gumbel Distribution
33.7.2 Dependence between Pit Depths
33.7.3 EV Distribution for Deep Pits
33.7.4 Implications for Reliability Analysis
33.8 Pitting at Welds
33.8.1 Short-Term Exposures
33.8.2 Estimates of Long-Term Pitting Development
33.8.3 EV Statistics for Weld Pit Depth
33.9 Case Study-Water Injection Pipelines
33.10 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
34 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation
Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Dent Formation Process and Types of Dents
34.2.1 Dent Formation Process
34.2.2 Types of Dents
34.2.3 Coincident Features
34.3 In-Line-Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.3.1 Geometry (Caliper) Sensing Technologies
34.3.2 Coincident Damage Sensing (Dent with Metal Loss) Technologies
34.3.3 Capabilities and Performance of the In-Line-Inspection Technologies for Detection, Discrimination and Sizing of Mechanical Damage
34.3.4 Closing Remarks
34.4 Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.4.1 In-Ditch LaserScan Technology
34.4.2 Application of the Improved In-Ditch Measurement Technology
34.5 Assessment of Severity of Mechanical Damage
34.5.1 Regulatory and Industry Standard Guidance
34.5.2 Depth-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.3 Static Strain-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.4 A Combined Strain-Based and MFL-Based Approach to Evaluate Dent with Metal Loss
34.5.5 Dynamic Strain-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.6 Fatigue-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.6 Mitigation and Repairs
34.6.1 Improved Strain-Based Dent Severity Criteria - Alternatives
34.6.2 Repairs
34.7 Continued Challenges
References
35 Sulfide Stress Cracking
Russell D. Kane
35.1 Introduction
35.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking?
35.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines
35.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms
35.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC
35.5.1 Availability of Liquid Water
35.5.2 pH and H2S Partial Pressure
35.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels
35.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC
References
36 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service
Russell D. Kane
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC
36.2.1 Environmental Variables in FGE
36.2.2 Metallurgical Variables
36.2.3 Mechanical Variables
36.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC
36.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC
36.4.1 Identification
36.4.2 Inspection
36.4.3 Mitigation
36.5 Path Forward
References
Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers
37 AC Corrosion
Lars Vendelbo Nielsen
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Basic Understanding
37.2.1 The Spread Resistance
37.2.2 The Effect of AC on DC Polarization
37.2.3 The Vicious Circle of AC Corrosion-Mechanistic Approach
37.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management
37.3.1 Criteria
37.3.2 Current Criteria
37.3.3 Mitigation Measures
37.3.4 Monitoring and Management
References
Bibliography
38 Erosion-Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley,
Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon,
Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Solid Particle Erosion
38.3 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2 Environment with Sand
38.4 Erosion-Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron Carbonate Erosivity
38.4.1 CO2 Partial Pressure
38.4.2 pH
38.4.3 Temperature
38.4.4 Flow Velocity
38.4.5 Supersaturation
38.4.6 Erosion of Scale
38.4.7 Erosion-Corrosion
38.4.8 Erosion-Corrosion Model Development
38.5 Erosion-Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
38.5.1 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steels versus CRAs
38.5.2 Erosion-Corrosion with CRAs under High Erosivity Conditions
38.5.3 Repassivation of CRAs
38.5.4 Effect of Microstructure and Crystallography on Erosion-Corrosion
38.5.5 Summary
38.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion-Corrosion
38.6.1 Effect of Sand Erosion on Chemical Inhibition
38.6.2 Modeling and Prediction of Inhibited Erosion-Corrosion
38.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
39 Black Powder in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Abdelmounam M. Sherik
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Impacts on Operations and Customers
39.3 Internal Corrosion of Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines
39.3.1 Sources of Moisture
39.3.2 Formation Mechanisms
39.3.3 Formation Rate
39.4 Analysis Techniques
39.4.1 Sample Collection
39.4.2 Test Methods
39.5 Black Powder Movement
39.6 Erosive Properties of Black Powder
39.7 Black Powder Management Methods
39.7.1 Removal Strategies
39.7.2 Prevention Strategy
39.8 Monitoring Black Powder
39.9 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder
39.9.1 Worker Protection and Contamination Control
39.10 Solutions
39.11 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
PART VI PROTECTION
40 Mitigating Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC) Using Corrosion Inhibitors: Types and Application Methods
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Inhibitors Used to Mitigate TLC
40.2.1 Amine-Based Inhibitors
40.2.2 Imidazoline-Based Inhibitors
40.2.3 Thiol-Based Inhibitors
40.2.4 Monoethylene Glycol-Based Inhibitors
40.3 Application Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors under TLC Conditions
40.3.1 Continuous or Periodic Injection of Inhibitors into the Flow Stream
40.3.2 Conventional Batch Treatments with or without Pigs
40.3.3 Inhibitor Application with Foams or Gels
40.3.4 Applications of Inhibitors with Specialty Pigs
40.3.5 Comparison of Inhibitor-Application Methods
References
41 External Coatings
Doug Waslen
41.1 Introduction and Background
41.2 Coating Performance
41.2.1 Needs Assessment
41.3 Product Testing
41.3.1 Cathodic Disbondment Resistance
41.3.2 Adhesion
41.3.3 Flexibility
41.3.4 Aging
41.3.5 Temperature Rating
41.3.6 Damage Resistance
41.3.7 Cure
41.3.8 Electrical Isolation
41.4 Standards and Application Specification
41.4.1 Quality Assurance
41.5 Field-Applied Coatings
41.6 Coating Types and Application
41.6.1 Fusion Bond Epoxy
41.6.2 Extruded Olefins
41.6.3 Liquid Epoxy and Urethane
41.6.4 Composite Coatings
41.6.5 Girth Weld Coatings
41.6.6 Specialty Coatings
41.6.7 Repair Coatings
Reference
42 Thermoplastic Liners For Oilfield Pipelines
James F. Mason
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Codes and Standards
42.3 The Installation Process
42.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects
42.5 Liner Materials
42.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner
42.7 Lined Pipeline Systems-Application Examples
42.7.1 Liners in Hydrocarbon Flow Lines
42.7.2 Grooved PE Liners
42.7.3 Liners in a Reeled, Water Injection Pipeline
42.7.4 Liners in Sour Gas and Gas Condensate Pipelines
42.7.5 PA11 Liners in Sour Gas Pipelines
References
43 Cathodic Protection
Sarah Leeds
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection
43.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection
43.3.1 Mechanism of Cathodic Protection
43.3.2 E-pH Pourbaix Diagram
43.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied
43.4.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection System
43.4.2 Sacrificial Anode Design
43.4.3 Anode Material
43.4.4 Impressed Current System
43.4.5 Sacrificial Anode versus Impressed Current Systems
43.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection
43.5.1 Current Requirement for a Cathodic Protection System
43.5.2 What is the Most Economical Way for Supplying Current?
43.5.3 How Is the Protective Current Distributed over the Structure?
43.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection
43.6.1 Beneficial Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in Conjunction with Coatings
43.6.2 Adverse Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in Conjunction with Coatings
43.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems
43.7.1 Commissioning of Cathodic Protection System
43.7.2 Monitoring Test Stations (Test Points)
43.7.3 Annual Compliance Surveys
43.7.4 Direct Current Voltage Gradient Surveys-DCVG
43.7.5 %IR Severity
43.7.6 Coating Fault Grading
43.7.7 Close Interval Potential Surveys - CIPS/CIS
43.7.8 Soil Resistivity
43.7.9 Corrosion Coupons
43.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria
43.8.1 ?850mV versus Cu/CuSO4 with the Cathodic Protection Current Applied Criterion
43.8.2 Polarized Potential of ?850mV Measured to a Cu/CuSO4 Reference Electrode Criterion
43.8.3 100mV Polarization Criterion
43.8.4 Net Current Flow Criterion
43.8.5 Use of Criteria
References
PART VII INSPECTION AND MONITORING
44 Using Cathodic Protection for Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Damage and Interference
Gerard Huss, Carine Lacroix, Eric Parizot, and David Xu
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Background
44.3 Testing Procedure and Process
44.3.1 Theory
44.3.2 Proof of Concept
44.3.3 Other Parameters
44.3.4 Demonstrator
44.4 Real-Time Detection of an Electrical Short between a Pipeline and Its Casing
44.5 Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Aggression on a Pipeline
44.6 Real-Time Detection of a Lightning Strike
44.7 Discussion
References
45 Airborne LiDAR for Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection
Ashwin Yerasi
45.1 Introduction
45.2 LiDAR Measurements
45.3 Wavelength Bands
45.4 Operational Techniques
45.4.1 DIAL Principle
45.4.2 TDLAS Principle
45.5 Ancillary Components
45.6 Inspection Report
45.7 LiDAR Developments for Natural Gas Pipeline Leak Surveillance
Appendix 45.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
References
46 3D-Geolocalization by Magnetometry Using UAS: A Novel Method for Buried Pipeline Mapping and Bending Strain Assessment
Mehdi M. LAICHOUBI, Hamza KELLA BENNANI, Ludovic Berthelot, Vincent BENET, Miaohang HU, Michel PINET, and Samir TAKILLAH
46.1 Introduction
46.2 3D-Localisation and Depth of Cover Assessment
46.3 Materials and Methods
46.4 Case Study and Operating Procedure
46.5 Performance of the 3D-Localisation
46.6 Generalized Study on Eight GRTgaz Pipeline Spots
46.7 Bending Strain Assessment
46.8 Drone-Based Bending Strain (DBBS) Case Study
46.9 Conclusion
References
47 Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring
Nageswara Lalam and Ruishu Wright
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS)
47.3 Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)
47.4 Distributed Chemical Sensing for Corrosion and Corrosivity Monitoring
47.5 Challenges and Opportunities
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 Direct Assessment
John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski
48.1 Introduction
48.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA)
48.2.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.2.2 Strengths
48.2.3 Limitations
48.2.4 Status of Standard
48.2.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.2.6 Where ECDA Technique Is Headed
48.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA)
48.3.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.3.2 Strengths
48.3.3 Limitations
48.3.4 Status of Standard
48.3.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.3.6 Where SCCDA Technique Is Headed
48.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA)
48.4.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.4.2 Dry Gas ICDA
48.4.3 Wet Gas ICDA
48.4.4 Liquid Petroleum ICDA
48.4.5 Multiphase Flow ICDA
48.4.6 Strengths
48.4.7 Limitations
48.4.8 Status of Standards
48.4.9 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.4.10 Where ICCA Technique Is Headed
References
49 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
Daniel E. Powell
49.1 Introduction-Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
49.1.1 Corrosion-A Definition
49.1.2 Corrosion and Use of Coupons and ER Probes as Integrity Management Tools
49.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion Probes
49.2.1 Metal Coupons
49.2.2 Electrical Resistance Probes
49.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within Pipelines
49.3.1 Placement of the Corrosion Monitoring Point on a Pipeline
49.3.2 Orientation of the Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within a Pipeline
49.4 Monitoring Results "Drive" Chemical Treatment and Maintenance Pigging Programs
49.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
49.5.1 Precision of UT, RT, or MFL Nondestructive Inspection Techniques
49.5.2 Typical Exposure Periods for Coupons or ER Probes to Detect Active Corrosion
49.5.3 Relative Time for Coupons, ER Probes, or Inspection Techniques to Detect Active Corrosion
49.6 Seek Consistency between Internal Corrosion Monitoring and NDT Results - Confirm Trends
49.7 Look for Consistency: Fluid Sample Analysis Should Complement and Verify Monitoring Results
49.7.1 Identify Potential Sample Collection Points Nearby and on Same Production Stream
49.7.2 Sample Analysis Variables Commonly Assessed
49.8 Summary
49.9 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms from NACE 3T199 (c) NACE International 2012
References
50 In-Line Inspection (ILI) ("Intelligent Pigging")
Neb I. Uzelac
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management
50.3 Running ILI Tools
50.3.1 Tool Type Selection
50.3.2 Making Sure the Tool Fits the Pipeline
50.3.3 Conducting the Survey
50.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose
50.4.1 Geometry (Deformation) Tools
50.4.2 Mapping/GPS Tools
50.4.3 Metal Loss Tools
50.4.4 Crack Detection
50.4.5 Other
50.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification
50.6 Integrating ILI Data
Appendix 50.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire (Nonmandatory)
References
Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content
51 Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
Konrad Reber
51.1 The Inspection Challenge in Offshore Pipelines
51.2 Internal Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
51.3 External Inspection Methods for Subsea Pipelines
51.3.1 Deployment of External Inspection Tool
51.3.2 Examples of External Inspection Devices
51.4 Inspection of Risers
51.5 Conclusions
References
52 Tethered Inspection of Riser System for Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T.-S. Kristiansen, and U. Schneider
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Tethered Tool Principle
52.3 Case Study: 10-Inch Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks
52.4 The Reinspection Project
52.5 Summary and Benefits
Reference
53 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection
KONRAD REBER
53.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing
53.1.1 Introduction
53.1.2 How Eddy Current Testing (ECT) Works
53.1.3 Limitations for Pipeline Inspection
53.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing
53.2.1 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing (RFEC)
53.2.2 Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) Testing
53.2.3 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (SLOFEC (TM), MEC (TM), Magcontrol (TM))
53.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection
53.3.1 Standard EC Applications
53.3.2 Remote Field and Low Frequency Testing
53.3.3 Pulsed Eddy Current Applications
53.3.4 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (MEC (TM), SLOFEC (TM))
References
54 Unpiggable Pipelines
Tom Steinvoorte
54.1 Introduction
54.1.1 What Is an Unpiggable Pipeline?
54.1.2 The Main Challenges
54.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach
54.2.1 Pipeline Modification
54.2.2 Cable-Operated Inspection
54.2.3 Modification of Existing Tools
54.2.4 Self-Propelled Inspection
54.2.5 Selection Process
54.3 Free-Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections
54.3.1 Bidirectional Inspection
54.3.2 ILI Tools for Launch Valve Operation
54.3.3 Low-Pressure Inspection of Gas Pipelines
54.3.4 Multi-Diameter Inspection
54.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions
54.4.1 UT-Based Crawlers
54.4.2 MFL-Based Crawlers
54.4.3 Others
References
Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information
55 In-The-Ditch Pipeline Inspection
Greg Zinter
55.1 Overview
55.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines
55.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program
55.3.1 Safety
55.3.2 Verification and Advancement of Technology
55.4 Pipeline Coatings
55.4.1 Asphalt or Coal Tar Enamel
55.4.2 Tape Wrap
55.4.3 Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE)
55.5 Types of Anomalies
55.5.1 Introduction
55.5.2 Volumetric
55.5.3 Planar
55.5.4 Geometric
55.6 NDE Measurement Technologies
55.6.1 Visual Assessment
55.6.2 Manual Measurement
55.6.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection
55.6.4 Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)
55.6.5 Laser Profilometry
55.7 Excavation Package
55.8 Data Collection
55.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment
55.10 Data Management
55.10.1 Quality Control
55.10.2 Reporting
55.11 Recent Technological Developments
55.11.1 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT)
55.11.2 Structured Light
55.11.3 Ultrasonic
55.11.4 Eddy Current
55.12 Summary
Acknowledgments
Reference
Bibliography
56 Flaw Assessment
Ted L. Anderson
56.1 Overview
56.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental?
56.1.2 Material Properties for Flaw Assessment
56.1.3 Effect of Notch Acuity
56.2 Assessing Metal Loss
56.3 Crack Assessment
56.3.1 The Log-Secant Model for Longitudinal Cracks
56.3.2 The Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD)
56.3.3 Pressure Cycle Fatigue Analysis
56.4 Dents
References
57 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities
Greg Szuch, Mike Reed, and Keith Leewis
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Elements of a F-IMP
57.2.1 Scope of the Program
57.2.2 Goals of the Program
57.2.3 Threat Identification/Management
57.2.4 Risk Assessment/Management
57.2.5 Monitoring Inspections and Integrity Assessments
57.2.6 Quality Control
57.2.7 Communications
57.3 Building a Facility Integrity Plan
57.3.1 Where to Start?
57.3.2 Continuous Improvement
57.4 Final Thoughts
References
Bibliography: Essential Reading
58 Pipeline Geohazard Detection Using Satellite InSAR
Murray Down and Jon Leighton
58.1 Introduction: Why InSAR for Pipelines
58.2 Satelllite InSAR Simplified
58.2.1 Line of Sight
58.2.2 Imaging Perspectives
58.2.3 Single-Look vs Dual-Look
58.2.4 Geometric Distortion
58.2.5 Coherence
58.2.6 Permafrost
58.3 Specifying InSAR Requirements
58.3.1 Data
58.3.2 Historical Analysis
Bibliography
59 Integrity Management of Pipelines with Cracking
Michael Palmer
59.1 Introduction
59.2 What Are Cracks and How Do We Find Them?
59.2.1 Key Learning Points
59.3 Integrity Assessment of Cracks
59.3.1 Assessment Inputs
59.3.2 Assessment Methods
59.3.3 Crack Growth
59.3.4 Key Learning Points
59.4 What Can Be Done to Manage the Integrity of a Pipeline with Cracks?
59.4.1 Understanding the Threat
59.4.2 Integrity Management Tools
59.4.3 Long-Term Integrity Management
59.4.4 Key Learning Points
References
PART VIII MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT, REUSE, AND ABANDONMENT
60 Hydrogen and the Energy Transition
Neil Gallon and Adrian Horsley
60.1 Introduction
60.1.1 Colorful Hydrogen
60.1.2 Current Hydrogen Demand
60.1.3 The Future of Hydrogen
60.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
60.3 Designing or Repurposing a Hydrogen Pipeline
60.3.1 Materials of Construction
60.3.2 Design Pressure
60.3.3 Construction Welding
60.3.4 Repurposing of Pipelines to Hydrogen
60.4 Differences in the Integrity Management Approach between Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipelines
60.4.1 Probability of Failure
60.4.2 Consequence
60.4.3 Implications for Integrity Management in Hydrogen
References
61 Pipeline Cleaning
Randy L. Roberts
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Contaminates
61.3 Progressive Pigging
61.4 Pig Types
61.4.1 Poly Foam
61.4.2 Unibody
61.4.3 Steel Mandrel
61.4.4 Polyurethanes
61.5 Durometer
61.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning
61.7 On-Line or Off-Line
61.8 Cleaning a Pipeline
61.8.1 Typical Pigging Procedures
61.8.2 Pipeline Cleaners and Diluents
61.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be?
61.9.1 Single Diameter Pipelines
61.9.2 Multi-Diameter Pipelines
61.10 Summary
References
62 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure
Brian N. Leis
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Background
62.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline Construction
62.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for "Older" Pipelines
62.4.1 System Expansion and Construction Era
62.4.2 Qualitative Assessment of Construction Era and Incident Frequency
62.4.3 Quantitative Assessment of Construction Era and Incident Frequency
62.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, and Regulations
62.5.1 Pipeline Codes and Standards
62.5.2 Pipeline Regulations
62.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines
62.6.1 "Early" Construction Practices
62.6.2 "Vintage" Construction Practices-An Era of Change
62.6.3 Summary and a Brief Look Forward at the "Modern" Construction Era
62.7 Management Approach and Challenges
62.7.1 Threat Identification and Assessment
62.7.2 Inspection and Condition Monitoring
62.7.3 Life-Cycle Management
62.8 Closure
Acknowledgments
References
63 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves
William A. Bruce, Melissa Gould, and John Kiefner
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Background
63.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves
63.3.1 Type A Sleeves (Reinforcing)
63.3.2 Type B Sleeves (Pressure Containing)
63.3.3 Installation and Inspection of Full-Encirclement Sleeves
63.3.4 Defect Repair Using Composite Materials
63.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced Composite Repairs
63.4.1 Applicability to Various Defect Types
63.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
63.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline
63.5.1 Primary Concerns
63.5.2 Preventing Burnthrough
63.5.3 Preventing Hydrogen Cracking
63.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
64 Pipeline Repair
Robert Smyth and David Futch
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Background
64.3 Defect Identification
64.4 Safety
64.5 Protocols
64.6 Recoat
64.7 Pipe Replacement
64.8 Grinding/Sanding
64.9 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves, Type A and B
64.10 Epoxy-Filled Sleeves
64.11 Steel Compression Sleeves
64.12 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves
64.12.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair
64.13 Thin Sheet Steel Coil Wrap
64.14 Hot Tapping
64.15 Direct Deposition Welding
64.16 Mechanical Clamps
64.17 Temporary Repairs
64.18 Applicability to Various Defect Types
References
65 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup
Merv Fingas
65.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview
65.1.1 How Often Do Spills Occur?
65.1.2 Pipelines
65.2 Response to Oil Spills
65.2.1 Oil Spill Contingency Plans
65.2.2 Activation of Contingency Plans
65.2.3 Training
65.2.4 Supporting Studies and Sensitivity Mapping
65.2.5 Oil Spill Cooperatives
65.2.6 The Effectiveness of Cleanup
65.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties
65.3.1 The Composition of Oil
65.3.2 Properties of Oil
65.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment
65.4.1 An Overview of Weathering
65.4.2 Evaporation
65.4.3 Emulsification and Water Uptake
65.4.4 Biodegradation
65.4.5 Spreading
65.4.6 Movement of Oil Slicks on Water
65.4.7 Sinking and Over Washing
65.4.8 Spill Modeling
65.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills
65.5.1 Sampling and Laboratory Analysis
65.5.2 Detection and Surveillance
65.6 Containment on Water
65.6.1 Types of Booms and Their Construction
65.6.2 Uses of Booms
65.6.3 Boom Failures
65.6.4 Sorbent Booms and Barriers
65.7 Oil Recovery on Water
65.7.1 Skimmers
65.7.2 Sorbents
65.7.3 Manual Recovery
65.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal
65.8.1 Temporary Storage
65.8.2 Pumps
65.8.3 Vacuum Systems
65.8.4 Recovery from the Water Subsurface
65.8.5 Separation
65.8.6 Decontamination
65.8.7 Disposal
65.9 Spill-Treating Agents
65.10 In Situ Burning
65.10.1 Advantages
65.10.2 Disadvantages
65.10.3 Ignition and What Will Burn
65.10.4 Burn Efficiency and Rates
65.10.5 Use of Containment
65.10.6 Emissions from Burning Oil
65.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration
65.11.1 Behavior of Oil on Shorelines
65.11.2 Types of Shorelines
65.11.3 Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT)
65.11.4 Cleanup Methods
65.11.5 Recommended Cleanup Methods
65.12 Oil Spills on Land
65.12.1 Behavior of Oil on Land
65.12.2 Movement of Oil on Land Surfaces
65.12.3 Habitats/Ecosystems
65.12.4 Cleanup of Surface Spills
65.12.5 Natural Recovery
65.12.6 Removal of Excess Oil
65.12.7 Other Cleanup Methods
65.12.8 Cleanup of Subsurface Spills
References
66 Pipeline Abandonment
Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes
66.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment?
66.2 Abandonment Planning
66.2.1 Removal or Abandon in Place
66.2.2 Consultation
66.2.3 Abandonment Plan Outline
66.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities
66.3.1 Contamination Remediation
66.3.2 Pipeline Cleaning
66.3.3 Removal of Facilities and Apparatus
66.3.4 Water Bodies
66.3.5 Transportation and Utility Crossings
66.3.6 Right-of-Way Restoration
66.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues
66.4.1 Ground Subsidence
66.4.2 Pipe Deterioration and Collapse
66.4.3 Pipe Exposure
66.4.4 Water Conduit Effect
66.4.5 Slope Stability
66.5 Post-Abandonment Care
66.5.1 Monitoring and Maintenance
66.5.2 Land Use Changes
66.5.3 Liability
66.5.4 Financial Resources
References
PART IX RISK MANAGEMENT
67 Risk Management of Pipelines
Lynne C. Kaley
67.1 Overview
67.1.1 Risk-Based Inspection for Pipelines
67.1.2 Scope
67.1.3 Risk Analysis
67.1.4 The RBI Approach
67.1.5 Risk Reduction and Inspection Planning
67.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches
67.2.1 API Industry Standards for RBI
67.2.2 Basic Risk Categories
67.2.3 Alternative RBI Approaches
67.2.4 Qualitative Approaches to RBI
67.2.5 Quantitative RBI Analysis
67.3 Development of Inspection Programs
67.3.1 Introduction
67.3.2 Inspection Techniques and Effectiveness
67.3.3 Damage Types
67.3.4 Probability of Detection
67.3.5 Reducing Risk through Inspection
67.4 Putting RBI into Practice
67.4.1 A Continuum of Approach
67.4.2 Qualitative versus Quantitative Examples
67.4.3 Qualitative Example
67.4.4 Quantitative Example
67.4.5 Optimizing the Inspection Program
67.4.6 Example Problem Conclusions
67.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies
67.5.1 Summary
67.5.2 Ten Criteria for Selecting the Most Appropriate Level of RBI
67.5.3 Justifying Costs
References
Bibliography
68 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management with Lessons Learned
Binder Singh and Ben Poblete
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions
68.3 Life Cycle
68.3.1 Fitness for Corrosion Service
68.3.2 Conventional and Performance-Based Corrosion Management
68.3.3 Corrosion Risk-Based Performance Goals
68.3.4 Inherent Safe Design (ISD) and Project Phases of a Production Development
68.3.5 Link between ISD and Corrosion Management
68.3.6 Risk-Based Inspection and Monitoring
68.3.7 Life Extension
68.4 Case Histories
68.4.1 Fit-for-Purpose Solutions
68.4.2 Methods and Techniques of Failure Analysis
68.4.3 Failure Mechanisms and Excursions outside the Design Envelope
68.4.4 Corrosion and Integrity Risk
68.4.5 Corrosion Failures
68.4.6 Localized Corrosion Mechanisms in the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry
68.4.7 Pictorial Gallery of Localized Corrosion and Cracking
68.4.8 Failure Analysis Check Sheet Listing
68.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations
68.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring Methodologies
68.6.1 Risk and Reliability in the Corrosion Context
68.6.2 Safety Management Systems and Corrosion Risk
68.6.3 Formal or Structured Hazard or Risk Assessment
68.7 Lessons Learned, Recommendations, and Future Strategies
68.7.1 Lessons Learned - Update and Discussion
68.7.2 Recommendations and Future Strategies
Caveat and Acknowledgments
References
Bibliography
69 Pipeline Operational Intrusions
Errol R. A. Eccles
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Operations Management and Risk
69.3 Risk Assessment
69.3.1 High-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.2 Medium-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.3 Lower-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.4 Hazards and Controls
69.3.5 Risk Matrix
69.4 Operations Management
69.4.1 Standard Operating Procedures
69.4.2 Checklist
69.4.3 Shift Log
69.4.4 Shift Handover
69.5 Process Safety Management
69.5.1 Mechanical Integrity
69.6 Work Management
69.6.1 Planning
69.6.2 Scheduling and Prioritization
69.6.3 Risk Assessment for Work
69.6.4 Higher-Risk Work, Permitted Work
69.6.5 As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP)
69.6.6 Graphics
69.6.7 Icons
69.6.8 Lessons Learned
69.6.9 Information Technology
69.7 Emergency and Incident Management
69.8 Management of Change (MOC)
69.9 Competence
69.10 Risk Management
69.10.1 Safety Risk
69.10.2 Cumulative Risk
69.10.3 Risk Mitigation
69.10.4 Barrier Management
69.10.5 Example of Risks
69.11 Information Technology (IT)
69.11.1 Security and Visibility
69.11.2 Digital Risk Assessment
69.11.3 Lessons Learned
69.11.4 Searchability
69.11.5 Reporting
69.11.6 History
69.11.7 Printing
69.12 Summary
69.13 Terms and Definitions
Acknowledgments
References
PART X CASE HISTORIES
70 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking on Onshore Pipelines Driven by Cathodic Protection - Case Studies
Pablo Cazenave, Katina Jimenez, Ming Gao, and Ravi Krishnamurthy
70.1 Background
70.2 Investigation of a Gas Transmission Pipeline Failure in Argentina
70.2.1 Reconstruction of the Failed Pipes and Data Gathering
70.2.2 Environmental and Operational Assessment
70.2.3 Chemical and Mechanical Testing
70.2.4 Fractographic and Metallographic Evaluations
70.3 Mechanisms of Cracking
70.3.1 HAC and HIC
70.3.2 Comparison Between HAC and NNpHSCC Mechanisms
70.3.3 Hydrogen Evolution: Cathodic Protection vs Free Corrosion
70.3.4 Cathodic Protection and pH of the Electrolyte
70.3.5 Coating Disbondment and Cathodic Protection Shielding
70.3.6 Crack dormancy/blunting
70.4 Similar Cases in Europe, North America, and the Literature
70.4.1 Natural Gas Pipeline in Europe
70.4.2 Refined Products Pipeline in the USA
70.4.3 Similar Cases in Literature
70.5 Effects of CP-related Hydrogen on Other Types of Cracking
70.6 Mitigation strategies
70.7 Closing remarks
References
71 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study-Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions
Arnold L. Lewis II
71.1 Introduction
71.1.1 Statement of the Buckle/Collapse Problem
71.1.2 Observations
71.2 Study Conclusions
71.2.1 Conclusions for Sources of Hydrogen in an Annulus of a Pipeline Repair Sleeve
71.2.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from inside the Pipeline into an Annulus
71.2.3 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from outside the Repair Sleeve into an Annulus
71.2.4 Factors Affecting the Rate of Annulus Pressure Increase
71.2.5 Factors Affecting the Time Required for a Buckle/Collapse Failure
71.2.6 Main Sources and Considerations for Hydrogen Gas Trapped in the Annulus of a Pipeline Repair Sleeve
71.2.7 Solutions to Mitigate Buckle/Collapse Failures under Pipeline Repair Sleeves
71.3 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
72 Shell FLAGS Inspection Case Study
J. Nonemaker, T. Steinvoorte, and R. Subramanian
72.1 Introduction
72.2 The Challenge
72.3 The Solution
72.4 Field Work
72.5 Result
73 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multi-Diameter Pipelines - A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project
Luciano Baptista, Tom Steinvoorte, Stephan Harmsen, and Carlos Enrique Sabido
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Background
73.3 Challenge
73.4 Solution
73.5 Scope
73.6 Tool Design
73.6.1 Multi-Diameter Cleaning Tools
73.6.2 Key Design Features of the ILI Tool
73.7 Testing
73.7.1 Bypass Tests
73.7.2 Pump Tests
73.7.3 Pull Tests
73.8 Gauging and Inspection Runs
73.8.1 Key Challenges
73.8.2 Cleaning, Gauging, and Inspecting Route 2.1
73.9 Benefit
References
GLOSSARY
Part 1: Abbreviations
Part 2: Selected Terms
Este título pertence ao(s) assunto(s) indicados(s). Para ver outros títulos clique no assunto desejado.
Pipeline integrity; pipeline corrosion; vintage pipeline; low-carbon economy; pipeline integrity management system; nonmetallic pipeline; pipeline welding; top of the line corrosion; cathodic protection; unpiggable pipeline; pipeline repair; energy transition
CONTENTS
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
PART I DIGITALIZATION OF PIPELINES
1 Digital Future of Pipeline Integrity
Gaurav Singh
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Digital Integrity Framework
1.2.1 General Pipeline Integrity Framework
1.2.2 Digital Framework for Pipeline Integrity Management Systems
1.2.3 Data Management
1.2.4 Integrity Management
1.3 Fast Forward Digital Future Technologies
1.3.1 Integrity Data Warehouse
1.3.2 Descriptive Analytics: What Has Happened
1.3.3 Predictive Analytics: What Will Happen?
1.3.4 Use Case: Virtual ILI
1.3.5 Space-based Digital Asset Monitoring (Earth Observation)
1.3.6 Radar
1.3.7 SAR time Series
1.4 Technology Transition with Energy Transition
References
2 Cybersecurity and Safety Implications of Pipelines
Ben Miller and Jason Christopher
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Industrial Cybersecurity
2.3 The Industrial Cybersecurity Challenge
2.4 Industrial Intrusion Case Studies - A Short History
2.5 Industrial Cybersecurity Considerations for Pipeline Operations
2.5.1 Is It Safe?
2.5.2 Dependent Systems and the Systems-of-Systems View
2.5.3 Understanding Vulnerabilities and the Engineering Mindset
2.6 The Five ICS Cybersecurity Critical Controls
2.6.1 Control No. 1:ICS-Specific Incident Response Plan
2.6.2 Control No. 2:Defensible Architecture
2.6.3 Control No. 3:ICS Network Visibility and Monitoring
2.6.4 Control No. 4:Secure Remote Access
2.6.5 Control No. 5:Risk-Based Vulnerability Management Program
2.7 Getting Started: Common High-Impact Scenarios for Pipeline Operations
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Practical Applications of Machine Learning to Pipeline Integrity
Michael Gloven
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Machine Learning Fundamentals
3.2.1 Overview
3.2.2 Getting Started
3.2.3 Learning Methods
3.2.4 Supervised vs. Unsupervised Learning
3.2.5 Model Cross-Validation and Testing
3.2.6 Model Performance
3.2.7 Data and Sources
3.2.8 Data Quality
3.2.9 Special Considerations for Pipeline Networks
3.2.10 Data Pre-Processing
3.3 Supervised Learning - Classification
3.3.1 Third Party Damage Use Case
3.3.2 Training Data
3.3.3 Select Method and Learn Model
3.3.4 Model Testing
3.3.5 Confusion Matrix
3.3.6 Learning Curves
3.3.7 Predictor Importance
3.3.8 Apply Model & Application of Results
3.4 Supervised Learning - Regression
3.4.1 External Corrosion Growth Rate Use Case
3.4.2 Training Data
3.4.3 Select Method and Learn Model
3.4.4 Model Testing
3.4.5 Unity Plots
3.4.6 Learning Curve
3.4.7 Predictor Importance
3.4.8 Apply Model & Application of Results
3.5 Unsupervised Learning
3.5.1 SCC Susceptibility Use Case
3.5.2 Training Data
3.5.3 Cluster Analysis
3.5.4 Predictor Variance Analysis
3.5.5 Partition Analysis and Best-k
3.5.6 Perform k-means and Plot Analysis
3.6 Final Thoughts
3.7 Summary
References
Bibliography
4 Pipeline Corrosion Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning
Khairul Chowdhury, Binder Singh, and Shahidullah Kawsar
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Analysis Tool: Automated Predictive Analytics Computation Systems
4.3.1 Solution Methodology Using Machine Learning
4.4 Problem Example: Predicting Failure by External and Internal Corrosion
4.4.1 Historical Data
4.4.2 Analysis and Intelligence
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
PART II DESIGN
5 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines in a Low-Carbon Economy
Daniel Sandana
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CCUS: An Enabler of Decarbonization
5.2.1 Carbon Capture: Back to the Future
5.2.2 The CCUS Landscape Worldwide
5.2.3 Existing CO2 Pipelines
5.3 Transportation of CO2 by Pipeline: Operations
5.3.1 Properties of CO2 and Operational Considerations
5.3.2 Presence of Impurities and CO2 Compositions
5.3.3 Effect of Impurities on Transportation
5.4 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Key Integrity Challenges
5.4.1 Pipeline (Internal) Time-Dependent Threats
5.4.2 Fracture Control
5.4.3 Integrity Experience of Existing CO2 Pipelines and Cautions
5.5 Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines
5.5.1 Defining CO2 Stream Specifications
5.5.2 Understanding Line Pipe Material Properties for Fracture Control
5.5.3 Defining Integrity Baseline Condition and Confirming MAOP
5.5.4 Managing Safe Operations: Inspections
References
6 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS)
Katherine Jonsson, Ray Goodfellow, Douglas Evans, and Chitman Lutchman
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity
6.3 Regulatory Requirements
6.4 What is a PIMS?
6.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements
6.6 PIMS Function Map
6.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational
6.8 Do: Execute
6.9 Check: Assurance and Verification
6.10 Act: Management Review
6.11 Culture
6.12 Summary
References
7 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Rumi Mohammad, Ian Verhappen, and Ramin Vali
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SCADA Computer Servers
7.3 SCADA Computer Workstations
7.4 Hierarchy
7.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases
7.6 Fault Tolerance
7.7 Redundancy
7.8 High Availability
7.9 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems
7.10 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis
7.11 Incident Review and Replay
7.12 Data Quality
7.13 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover
7.14 Training
7.15 SCADA Security
7.16 Cybersecurity
7.16.1 Reference Architecture
7.16.2 Control Layer
7.16.3 Demilitarized Zone (DMZ)
7.16.4 Firewalls and Isolation
7.16.5 Cybersecurity Standards Sources
7.16.6 Management of Change
7.16.7 SCADA User Permissions and Area of Responsibility
7.16.8 Zero Trust
7.16.9 Web Connection
7.17 SCADA Standards
7.18 Pipeline Industry Applications
7.18.1 Leak Detection
7.18.2 Batch Tracking
7.18.3 Dynamic Pipeline Highlight
7.19 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
7.19.1 Overview of an ML AI Based Application
7.19.2 Predictive Flow Models
7.19.3 Optimization Engines
7.19.4 Decision Support and Autonomous Operations
7.20 Communication Media
7.20.1 Ethernet (Copper) Data Cable
7.20.2 Leased Line
7.20.3 Dial-Up Line
7.20.4 Optical Fiber
7.20.5 Radio Communications
7.20.6 License-Free Spectra
7.20.7 Licensed Radio
7.20.8 Microwave
7.20.9 Satellite
7.20.10 Cellular Data
7.20.11 Low-Data-Rate Wireless
7.21 Communications Infrastructure
7.22 Communications Integrity
7.23 RTUs and PLCs
7.24 Database
7.25 User-Defined Programs
7.26 RTU/PLC Integrity
7.27 Safety Systems
7.27.1 Safety Integrity Level (SIL)
7.27.2 Safety Instrumented System (SIS)
7.27.3 Black Channel
7.28 IOT/IIOT
7.29 Electrical Classification Compliance
7.29.1 Area Classifications
Acronyms, Abbreviations, Terms
Bibliography
8 Material Selection for Fracture Control
William Tyson
8.1 Overview of Fracture Control
8.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation
8.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation
8.4 Toughness Measurement
8.4.1 Toughness Measurement: Impact Tests
8.4.2 Toughness Measurement: J, CTOD, and CTOA
8.5 Current Status
References
9 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines
Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi
9.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts
9.1.1 Overview of Strain-Based Design
9.1.2 Deterministic versus Probabilistic Design Methods
9.1.3 Limit States
9.1.4 Displacement Control versus Load Control
9.1.5 Strain-Based Design Applications
9.2 Strain Demand
9.2.1 Overview
9.2.2 Challenging Environments and Strain Demand
9.2.3 Strain Levels and Analysis Considerations
9.3 Strain Capacity
9.3.1 Overview
9.3.2 Compressive Strain Capacity
9.3.3 Tensile Strain Capacity
9.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing
9.5 Summary
References
10 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines
Mavis Sika Okyere
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Design Pressure
10.2.1 Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure
10.2.2 Maximum Operating Pressure
10.2.3 Surge Pressure
10.2.4 Test Pressure
10.3 Design Factor
10.4 Determination of Components of Stress
10.4.1 Hoop and Radial Stresses
10.4.2 Longitudinal Stress
10.4.3 Shear Stress
10.4.4 Equivalent Stress
10.4.5 Limits of Calculated Stress
10.5 Fatigue
10.5.1 Fatigue Life
10.5.2 Fatigue Limit
10.5.3 S-N Curve
10.6 Expansion and Flexibility
10.6.1 Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors
10.7 Corrosion Allowance
10.7.1 Internal Corrosion Allowance
10.7.2 External Corrosion Allowance
10.7.3 Formulas
10.8 Pipeline Stiffness
10.8.1 Calculation of Pipeline Stiffness
10.8.2 Calculation of Induced Bending Moment
10.9 Pipeline Ovality
10.9.1 Brazier Effect
10.9.2 Ovality of a Buried Pipeline
10.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius
10.10.1 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Concrete
10.10.2 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Steel
10.10.3 Installation Condition
10.10.4 In-Service Condition
10.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure
10.11.1 Buried Installation
10.11.2 Above-Ground or Unburied Installation
10.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions
10.13 Summary
Appendix 10.A: Case Study
References
11 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications
Ayman Eltaher
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility
11.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications
11.3.1 Design Challenges
11.3.2 Stress Analysis Challenges
11.3.3 Materials and Manufacturing Challenges
11.4 Typical Pipe Properties
11.5 Technology Qualification
11.6 Additional Resources
11.7 Summary
References
12 Residual Stress in Pipelines
Douglas Hornbach and Paul Prevey
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 The Nature of Residual Stresses
12.1.2 Sources of Residual Stresses
12.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance
12.2.1 Fatigue
12.2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking
12.2.3 Corrosion Fatigue
12.2.4 Effects of Cold Working and Microscopic Residual Stresses
12.3 Residual Stress Measurement
12.3.1 Center Hole Drilling Method
12.3.2 Ring Core Method
12.3.3 Slitting and Slotting Method
12.3.4 Deep Hole Drill Method
12.3.5 Diffraction Methods
12.3.6 Synchrotron X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction: Full Stress Tensor Determination
12.3.7 Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Method
12.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses
12.4.1 Shot Peening
12.4.2 Roller or Ball Burnishing and Low Plasticity Burnishing
12.4.3 Laser Shock Peening
12.4.4 Thermal Stress Relief
12.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work
12.5.1 Case Study 1: Restoration of the Fatigue Performance of Corrosion and Fretting Damaged 4340 Steel
12.5.2 Case Study 2: Mitigating SCC in Stainless Steel Weldments
12.5.3 Case Study 3: Mitigation of Sulfide Stress Cracking in P110 Oil Field Coupling
12.5.4 Case Study 4: Improving Corrosion Fatigue Performance and Damage Tolerance of 410 Stainless Steel
12.5.5 Case Study 5: Improving the Fatigue Performance of Downhole Tubular Components
References
13 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity
Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis
13.2.1 Overview
13.2.2 Pipeline Routing
13.2.3 Geotechnical Investigations
13.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design
13.3.1 Overview
13.3.2 Physical Modeling
13.3.3 Computational Engineering Tools
13.3.4 Guidance on Best Practice to Enhance Computational Pipe/Soil Interaction Analysis
13.3.5 Emerging Research
13.3.6 Soil Constitutive Models
13.3.7 Advancing the State of Art into Engineering Practice through an Integrated Technology Framework
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
References
14 Human Factors
Lorna Harron
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What Is "Human Factors"?
14.3 The Human in the System
14.4 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors
14.4.1 Example Case Study
14.5 Human Factors and Decision Making
14.5.1 Information Receipt
14.5.2 Information Processing
14.6 Application of Human Factors Guidance
14.7 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making
14.7.1 Satisficing Heuristic
14.7.2 Cue Primacy and Anchoring
14.7.3 Selective Attention
14.7.4 Availability Heuristic
14.7.5 Representativeness Heuristic
14.7.6 Cognitive Tunneling
14.7.7 Confirmation Bias
14.7.8 Framing Bias
14.7.9 Management of Decision-Making Challenges
14.8 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry
14.9 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited
14.10 Tools and Methods
14.11 Summary
References
Bibliography
PART III NONMETALLIC PIPELINES
15 Nonmetallic Composite Pipelines
Niels Grigat, Stephan Koss, Ben Vollbrecht, Tim Moelling, Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum, and Thomas Gries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials
15.2.1 Composites
15.3 Manufacturing
15.3.1 Filament Winding
15.3.2 Braiding
15.3.3 Pultrusion
15.3.4 Joining Methods
15.4 Applications
15.5 Conclusion
References
PART IV MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION
16 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels
Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development
16.2.1 Thermomechanically Controlled Processing of Pipeline Steels
16.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels
16.3.1 Fracture of Pipeline Steels
16.3.2 Effect of Phase Transformation on the Texture Components
16.3.3 Effect of Austenite Recrystallization on Plate Texture
16.3.4 Effect of Austenite Pancaking on the Rolling Texture
16.3.5 Effect of Finish Rolling in the Intercritical Region
16.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
17 Pipe Manufacture-Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe
Christoph Kalwa
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Manufacturing Process
17.3 Quality Control Procedures
17.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions
17.5 Typical Fields of Application
18 Pipe Manufacture - Spiral Pipe
Franz Martin Knoop
18.1 Manufacturing Process
18.2 Quality Control Procedures
18.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions
18.4 Typical Fields of Applicability
References
19 Pipe Manufacture-Seamless Tube and Pipe
Rolf Kuemmerling and Klaus Kraemer
19.1 The Rolling Process
19.1.1 Introduction and History
19.1.2 Cross Rolling Technology
19.1.3 Pilger Rolling
19.1.4 Plug Rolling
19.1.5 Mandrel Rolling
19.1.6 Forging
19.1.7 Size Rolling and Stretch Reducing
19.2 Further Processing
19.2.1 Heat Treatment
19.2.2 Quality and In-Process Checks
19.2.3 Finishing Lines
References
20 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines
Nobuyuki Ishikawa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method
20.2.1 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Full-Scale Test
20.2.2 Standardized Laboratory Evaluation Method for HIC
20.2.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
20.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with HIC Resistance
20.3.1 Effect of Non-Metallic Inclusions
20.3.2 Effect of Center Segregation
20.3.3 Effect of Plate Manufacturing Condition
20.4 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with SSC Resistance under Severe Sour Conditions
20.4.1 SSC Failure Caused by Local Hard Zone
20.4.2 Effect of Surface Hardness on SSC
References
21 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity
David Dorling and James Gianetto
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Construction Welding Applications
21.2.1 Double-Joint Welding
21.2.2 Mainline Welding
21.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding
21.3 Non-destructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment
21.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification
21.4.1 Welding Codes and Standards
21.4.2 Welding Procedures
21.4.3 Welding Procedure Specification
21.4.4 Procedure Qualification Record
21.4.5 Qualification of Welders
21.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking
21.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design
21.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines
21.8 Pipeline Incidents and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action
Appendix 21.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
Appendix 21.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards
Acknowledgements
References
22 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity
Robert O'Grady
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation
22.2.1 Pipeline Installation Loading and Failure Modes
22.2.2 S-Lay Method
22.2.3 J-Lay Method
22.2.4 Reel-Lay Method
22.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation
22.3.1 Vessel Restrictions
22.3.2 Pipeline Integrity Criteria
22.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies
22.4.1 Global Installation Analysis
22.4.2 Methodologies
22.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore
22.5.1 Monitoring Process and Remedial Action
22.5.2 Monitoring Analysis Software
22.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation
22.6.1 Increased Tension and Potential for Local Buckling
22.6.2 Plastic Strains
22.6.3 Prolonged Fatigue Exposure
22.6.4 Design Implications
Reference
Bibliography
PART V THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY
23 Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC): Causes and Mechanisms
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Fundamentals of TLC
23.2.1 Causes of TLC
23.2.2 Characteristics of TLC
23.2.3 Mechanisms of TLC
23.3 Summary: Overall TLC Characteristics in CO2/H2S Environments
References
24 Management of Geohazard Loading during Pipeline Operation
Andy Young
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Nature of Hazards
24.2.1 Landslides
24.2.2 Seismic Hazards
24.2.3 Subsidence
24.2.4 Rivers
24.2.5 Erosion
24.2.6 Additional Geohazards
24.2.7 Morphoclimatic Zones
24.2.8 Other Sources of Loading
24.3 Regulations on Geohazard Management
24.4 Geohazards Management Plan
24.5 Hazard Identification
24.5.1 Inspection Methods
24.5.2 LiDAR Surveys
24.5.3 IMU Inspection
24.5.4 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Screening
24.5.5 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Examples
24.5.6 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Construction
24.5.7 Prioritization of Sites
24.5.8 Use of Bending Strain in Crack Management
24.6 Hazard Evaluation
24.6.1 Ground Model
24.6.2 Performance Limits
24.6.3 Strain Gauges and IMU
24.6.4 Structural Calculations
24.6.5 Axial Loading
24.6.7 Estimation of Risk
24.7 Hazard Mitigation
24.7.1 General
24.7.2 Ground Movement Monitoring
24.7.3 Pipe Monitoring
References
25 Climate Change, Pipeline Corrosion, and Integrity Management
Binder Singh
25.1 Introduction
25.2 ALARP Factor
25.3 Natural or Man-Made?
25.3.1 Swiss Cheese Model
25.4 Engineering Steel and Infrastructure
25.5 Reasons for Optimism
25.6 Discussion and Closing Remarks
Caveat and Acknowledgements
Appendix 25.A Acronyms, Definitions, and Criteria
Appendix 25.B Main Corrosion Terms: Modes and Mechanisms
References
Bibliography
26 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil
Homero Castaneda, Hui Wang, and Omar Rosas
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Background
26.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines
26.3.1 Multiscale Factors Influencing External Corrosion Related to Soil Properties and Conditions
26.3.2 Water Coverage due to Vapor Transportation and Drainage
26.3.3 pH of Soils
26.3.4 Chlorides and Sulfates in Soils
26.3.5 Differential Aeration Corrosion Cells
26.3.6 Microorganisms in Soils
26.3.7 Redox Potential
26.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments
26.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents
26.6 Monitoring and Inspection for Corrosion Characterization under Multiscale Conditions
References
27 Knowledge- and Data-Driven External Corrosion Modeling in Pipelines
Hui Wang, Homero Castaneda, and Sreelakshmi Sreeharan
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Background
27.3 Model Framework and Theory
27.3.1 Workflow for CIPS Data Analysis
27.3.2 Review of Clustering Analysis for Identifying Heterogeneity of Soil Corrosivity
27.3.3 Close Interval Potential Survey and Wavelet Transform
27.3.4 Bayesian Convolutional Neural Network (BCNN)
27.3.5 Reliability Analysis
27.4 Model Application
27.4.1 General Information
27.4.2 Clustering Results
27.4.3 BCNN Results
27.5 Limitations of the Approach
27.6 Conclusion
References
28 Electrochemical Noise to Monitor Corrosion of a Coated Metal
Sarah Leeds
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Protective Coatings
28.1.2 History of Electrochemical Noise
28.1.3 What is Electrochemical Noise?
28.2 Electrochemical Noise Method
28.2.1 ENM Equipment and Measurement
28.2.2 Initial study on Portable ENM development
28.2.3 ENM Configuration
28.2.4 ENM Study of a Standard Metal Item
28.2.5 ECN Test Measurements on a Good and a Poor Coating
28.3 Applications of ECN
28.3.1 Examples of the Application of Electrochemical Noise
Acknowledgments
References
29 Telluric Influence on Pipelines
David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference
29.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity
29.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity
29.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields
29.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment
29.6.1 Geomagnetic Activity
29.6.2 Earth Conductivity Structure
29.6.3 Pipeline Response
29.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects
29.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions
29.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
30 Factors Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking and Typical Growth Rates
B N Leis
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Research Concerning the Factors Controlling SCC
30.2.1 Early Years through Present-Day: The Roles of Temperature and Potential
30.2.2 Active-Passive Cracking from Smooth Surfaces: The 'Free-Surface Effect'
30.2.3 Effect of Stress: Thresholds and Cracking Speeds for High-pH SCC
30.2.4 Transition from Initiation and Early Growth to Macrocrack Propagation
30.3 Factors Controlling SCC - Service vs Laboratory Cracking
30.4 Quantifying a Bathtub Speed-Life Curve for High-pH SCC
30.4.1 The Bathtub Curve and Its Adaptation to SCC
30.4.2 Simulated Bathtub Life Curves for Susceptible and Resistant Pipe Steels
30.4.3 Incubation
30.4.4 Broadening the ACS Database for Field Cracking
30.4.5 Observations and Practical Takeaways
30.5 Emergence of NN-pH SCC: Its Traits vs High-pH SCC
30.6 Industry Guidance on Crack Speed and the Incidence of SCC
30.6.1 Cracking Speed
30.6.2 Where and When SCC Might Be Anticipated
30.7 Interface between Integrity and Condition Assessment
30.7.1 Background
30.7.2 Detection and Sizing SCC
30.7.3 Reporting Thresholds - Analysis, Implications, and Takeaways
30.8 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
31 Processes for High-pH and Near-Neutral-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking
B N Leis
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Imaging SCC and Related Observations
31.2.1 SCC Imaged along Fracture Surfaces
31.2.2 SCC Imaged on Cross-Sections
31.2.3 SCC Imaged on the OD Surface
31.2.4 Perspective Imaging
31.2.5 Summary
31.3 Compendium of SCC Images: Observations and Discussion
31.3.1 Cracking Imaged on the Pipe OD Surface
31.3.2 Crack Interaction and Coalescence
31.3.3 Fracture Surfaces: Rupture Origins versus Leaks and Stable Cracking
31.3.4 Cracking Imaged in Metallographic Cross-Sections
31.4 Crack Initiation and Growth Behavior on Pipelines
31.4.1 Insights into the Initiation and Early Growth Processes
31.4.2 Crack Growth into the Pipe Wall
31.4.3 Trending the Phenomenology of Field Cracking
31.4.4 Closure between Field Phenomenology and Laboratory-Based Modeling
31.4.5 Effects of Crack Blunting - Implications for Hydrotesting and Dormancy
31.4.6 Blunting and Other Effects that Trace to Localized Corrosion
31.4.7 Dormancy and Intermittent Growth
31.5 Summary and Key Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
32 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Jason S. Lee and Brenda J. Little
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Materials
32.3 Microorganisms
32.3.1 Water
32.3.2 Electron Donors and Acceptors
32.3.3 Nutrients
32.4 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines
32.4.1 Types of Pipelines
32.4.2 Detection, Monitoring, and Diagnosing
32.4.3 Modeling
32.4.4 Control
32.5 External Corrosion of Pipelines
32.5.1 Types of Pipelines
32.5.2 Detection, Monitoring, and Diagnosing
32.5.3 Modeling
32.5.4 Control
32.6 Conclusions
References
33 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines
Robert E. Melchers
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Asset Management and Prediction
33.3 Pitting
33.3.1 Terminology
33.3.2 Initiation and Nucleation of Pits
33.3.3 Development of Pitting
33.3.4 Biological Influences
33.3.5 Trends in Corrosion with Time
33.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth
33.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development
33.6 Structural Reliability
33.6.1 Formulation
33.6.2 Failure Conditions
33.7 Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth
33.7.1 The Gumbel Distribution
33.7.2 Dependence between Pit Depths
33.7.3 EV Distribution for Deep Pits
33.7.4 Implications for Reliability Analysis
33.8 Pitting at Welds
33.8.1 Short-Term Exposures
33.8.2 Estimates of Long-Term Pitting Development
33.8.3 EV Statistics for Weld Pit Depth
33.9 Case Study-Water Injection Pipelines
33.10 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
34 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation
Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Dent Formation Process and Types of Dents
34.2.1 Dent Formation Process
34.2.2 Types of Dents
34.2.3 Coincident Features
34.3 In-Line-Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.3.1 Geometry (Caliper) Sensing Technologies
34.3.2 Coincident Damage Sensing (Dent with Metal Loss) Technologies
34.3.3 Capabilities and Performance of the In-Line-Inspection Technologies for Detection, Discrimination and Sizing of Mechanical Damage
34.3.4 Closing Remarks
34.4 Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.4.1 In-Ditch LaserScan Technology
34.4.2 Application of the Improved In-Ditch Measurement Technology
34.5 Assessment of Severity of Mechanical Damage
34.5.1 Regulatory and Industry Standard Guidance
34.5.2 Depth-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.3 Static Strain-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.4 A Combined Strain-Based and MFL-Based Approach to Evaluate Dent with Metal Loss
34.5.5 Dynamic Strain-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.6 Fatigue-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.6 Mitigation and Repairs
34.6.1 Improved Strain-Based Dent Severity Criteria - Alternatives
34.6.2 Repairs
34.7 Continued Challenges
References
35 Sulfide Stress Cracking
Russell D. Kane
35.1 Introduction
35.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking?
35.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines
35.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms
35.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC
35.5.1 Availability of Liquid Water
35.5.2 pH and H2S Partial Pressure
35.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels
35.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC
References
36 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service
Russell D. Kane
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC
36.2.1 Environmental Variables in FGE
36.2.2 Metallurgical Variables
36.2.3 Mechanical Variables
36.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC
36.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC
36.4.1 Identification
36.4.2 Inspection
36.4.3 Mitigation
36.5 Path Forward
References
Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers
37 AC Corrosion
Lars Vendelbo Nielsen
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Basic Understanding
37.2.1 The Spread Resistance
37.2.2 The Effect of AC on DC Polarization
37.2.3 The Vicious Circle of AC Corrosion-Mechanistic Approach
37.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management
37.3.1 Criteria
37.3.2 Current Criteria
37.3.3 Mitigation Measures
37.3.4 Monitoring and Management
References
Bibliography
38 Erosion-Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley,
Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon,
Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Solid Particle Erosion
38.3 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2 Environment with Sand
38.4 Erosion-Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron Carbonate Erosivity
38.4.1 CO2 Partial Pressure
38.4.2 pH
38.4.3 Temperature
38.4.4 Flow Velocity
38.4.5 Supersaturation
38.4.6 Erosion of Scale
38.4.7 Erosion-Corrosion
38.4.8 Erosion-Corrosion Model Development
38.5 Erosion-Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
38.5.1 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steels versus CRAs
38.5.2 Erosion-Corrosion with CRAs under High Erosivity Conditions
38.5.3 Repassivation of CRAs
38.5.4 Effect of Microstructure and Crystallography on Erosion-Corrosion
38.5.5 Summary
38.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion-Corrosion
38.6.1 Effect of Sand Erosion on Chemical Inhibition
38.6.2 Modeling and Prediction of Inhibited Erosion-Corrosion
38.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
39 Black Powder in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Abdelmounam M. Sherik
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Impacts on Operations and Customers
39.3 Internal Corrosion of Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines
39.3.1 Sources of Moisture
39.3.2 Formation Mechanisms
39.3.3 Formation Rate
39.4 Analysis Techniques
39.4.1 Sample Collection
39.4.2 Test Methods
39.5 Black Powder Movement
39.6 Erosive Properties of Black Powder
39.7 Black Powder Management Methods
39.7.1 Removal Strategies
39.7.2 Prevention Strategy
39.8 Monitoring Black Powder
39.9 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder
39.9.1 Worker Protection and Contamination Control
39.10 Solutions
39.11 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
PART VI PROTECTION
40 Mitigating Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC) Using Corrosion Inhibitors: Types and Application Methods
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Inhibitors Used to Mitigate TLC
40.2.1 Amine-Based Inhibitors
40.2.2 Imidazoline-Based Inhibitors
40.2.3 Thiol-Based Inhibitors
40.2.4 Monoethylene Glycol-Based Inhibitors
40.3 Application Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors under TLC Conditions
40.3.1 Continuous or Periodic Injection of Inhibitors into the Flow Stream
40.3.2 Conventional Batch Treatments with or without Pigs
40.3.3 Inhibitor Application with Foams or Gels
40.3.4 Applications of Inhibitors with Specialty Pigs
40.3.5 Comparison of Inhibitor-Application Methods
References
41 External Coatings
Doug Waslen
41.1 Introduction and Background
41.2 Coating Performance
41.2.1 Needs Assessment
41.3 Product Testing
41.3.1 Cathodic Disbondment Resistance
41.3.2 Adhesion
41.3.3 Flexibility
41.3.4 Aging
41.3.5 Temperature Rating
41.3.6 Damage Resistance
41.3.7 Cure
41.3.8 Electrical Isolation
41.4 Standards and Application Specification
41.4.1 Quality Assurance
41.5 Field-Applied Coatings
41.6 Coating Types and Application
41.6.1 Fusion Bond Epoxy
41.6.2 Extruded Olefins
41.6.3 Liquid Epoxy and Urethane
41.6.4 Composite Coatings
41.6.5 Girth Weld Coatings
41.6.6 Specialty Coatings
41.6.7 Repair Coatings
Reference
42 Thermoplastic Liners For Oilfield Pipelines
James F. Mason
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Codes and Standards
42.3 The Installation Process
42.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects
42.5 Liner Materials
42.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner
42.7 Lined Pipeline Systems-Application Examples
42.7.1 Liners in Hydrocarbon Flow Lines
42.7.2 Grooved PE Liners
42.7.3 Liners in a Reeled, Water Injection Pipeline
42.7.4 Liners in Sour Gas and Gas Condensate Pipelines
42.7.5 PA11 Liners in Sour Gas Pipelines
References
43 Cathodic Protection
Sarah Leeds
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection
43.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection
43.3.1 Mechanism of Cathodic Protection
43.3.2 E-pH Pourbaix Diagram
43.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied
43.4.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection System
43.4.2 Sacrificial Anode Design
43.4.3 Anode Material
43.4.4 Impressed Current System
43.4.5 Sacrificial Anode versus Impressed Current Systems
43.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection
43.5.1 Current Requirement for a Cathodic Protection System
43.5.2 What is the Most Economical Way for Supplying Current?
43.5.3 How Is the Protective Current Distributed over the Structure?
43.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection
43.6.1 Beneficial Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in Conjunction with Coatings
43.6.2 Adverse Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in Conjunction with Coatings
43.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems
43.7.1 Commissioning of Cathodic Protection System
43.7.2 Monitoring Test Stations (Test Points)
43.7.3 Annual Compliance Surveys
43.7.4 Direct Current Voltage Gradient Surveys-DCVG
43.7.5 %IR Severity
43.7.6 Coating Fault Grading
43.7.7 Close Interval Potential Surveys - CIPS/CIS
43.7.8 Soil Resistivity
43.7.9 Corrosion Coupons
43.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria
43.8.1 ?850mV versus Cu/CuSO4 with the Cathodic Protection Current Applied Criterion
43.8.2 Polarized Potential of ?850mV Measured to a Cu/CuSO4 Reference Electrode Criterion
43.8.3 100mV Polarization Criterion
43.8.4 Net Current Flow Criterion
43.8.5 Use of Criteria
References
PART VII INSPECTION AND MONITORING
44 Using Cathodic Protection for Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Damage and Interference
Gerard Huss, Carine Lacroix, Eric Parizot, and David Xu
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Background
44.3 Testing Procedure and Process
44.3.1 Theory
44.3.2 Proof of Concept
44.3.3 Other Parameters
44.3.4 Demonstrator
44.4 Real-Time Detection of an Electrical Short between a Pipeline and Its Casing
44.5 Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Aggression on a Pipeline
44.6 Real-Time Detection of a Lightning Strike
44.7 Discussion
References
45 Airborne LiDAR for Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection
Ashwin Yerasi
45.1 Introduction
45.2 LiDAR Measurements
45.3 Wavelength Bands
45.4 Operational Techniques
45.4.1 DIAL Principle
45.4.2 TDLAS Principle
45.5 Ancillary Components
45.6 Inspection Report
45.7 LiDAR Developments for Natural Gas Pipeline Leak Surveillance
Appendix 45.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
References
46 3D-Geolocalization by Magnetometry Using UAS: A Novel Method for Buried Pipeline Mapping and Bending Strain Assessment
Mehdi M. LAICHOUBI, Hamza KELLA BENNANI, Ludovic Berthelot, Vincent BENET, Miaohang HU, Michel PINET, and Samir TAKILLAH
46.1 Introduction
46.2 3D-Localisation and Depth of Cover Assessment
46.3 Materials and Methods
46.4 Case Study and Operating Procedure
46.5 Performance of the 3D-Localisation
46.6 Generalized Study on Eight GRTgaz Pipeline Spots
46.7 Bending Strain Assessment
46.8 Drone-Based Bending Strain (DBBS) Case Study
46.9 Conclusion
References
47 Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring
Nageswara Lalam and Ruishu Wright
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS)
47.3 Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)
47.4 Distributed Chemical Sensing for Corrosion and Corrosivity Monitoring
47.5 Challenges and Opportunities
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 Direct Assessment
John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski
48.1 Introduction
48.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA)
48.2.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.2.2 Strengths
48.2.3 Limitations
48.2.4 Status of Standard
48.2.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.2.6 Where ECDA Technique Is Headed
48.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA)
48.3.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.3.2 Strengths
48.3.3 Limitations
48.3.4 Status of Standard
48.3.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.3.6 Where SCCDA Technique Is Headed
48.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA)
48.4.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.4.2 Dry Gas ICDA
48.4.3 Wet Gas ICDA
48.4.4 Liquid Petroleum ICDA
48.4.5 Multiphase Flow ICDA
48.4.6 Strengths
48.4.7 Limitations
48.4.8 Status of Standards
48.4.9 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.4.10 Where ICCA Technique Is Headed
References
49 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
Daniel E. Powell
49.1 Introduction-Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
49.1.1 Corrosion-A Definition
49.1.2 Corrosion and Use of Coupons and ER Probes as Integrity Management Tools
49.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion Probes
49.2.1 Metal Coupons
49.2.2 Electrical Resistance Probes
49.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within Pipelines
49.3.1 Placement of the Corrosion Monitoring Point on a Pipeline
49.3.2 Orientation of the Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within a Pipeline
49.4 Monitoring Results "Drive" Chemical Treatment and Maintenance Pigging Programs
49.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
49.5.1 Precision of UT, RT, or MFL Nondestructive Inspection Techniques
49.5.2 Typical Exposure Periods for Coupons or ER Probes to Detect Active Corrosion
49.5.3 Relative Time for Coupons, ER Probes, or Inspection Techniques to Detect Active Corrosion
49.6 Seek Consistency between Internal Corrosion Monitoring and NDT Results - Confirm Trends
49.7 Look for Consistency: Fluid Sample Analysis Should Complement and Verify Monitoring Results
49.7.1 Identify Potential Sample Collection Points Nearby and on Same Production Stream
49.7.2 Sample Analysis Variables Commonly Assessed
49.8 Summary
49.9 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms from NACE 3T199 (c) NACE International 2012
References
50 In-Line Inspection (ILI) ("Intelligent Pigging")
Neb I. Uzelac
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management
50.3 Running ILI Tools
50.3.1 Tool Type Selection
50.3.2 Making Sure the Tool Fits the Pipeline
50.3.3 Conducting the Survey
50.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose
50.4.1 Geometry (Deformation) Tools
50.4.2 Mapping/GPS Tools
50.4.3 Metal Loss Tools
50.4.4 Crack Detection
50.4.5 Other
50.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification
50.6 Integrating ILI Data
Appendix 50.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire (Nonmandatory)
References
Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content
51 Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
Konrad Reber
51.1 The Inspection Challenge in Offshore Pipelines
51.2 Internal Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
51.3 External Inspection Methods for Subsea Pipelines
51.3.1 Deployment of External Inspection Tool
51.3.2 Examples of External Inspection Devices
51.4 Inspection of Risers
51.5 Conclusions
References
52 Tethered Inspection of Riser System for Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T.-S. Kristiansen, and U. Schneider
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Tethered Tool Principle
52.3 Case Study: 10-Inch Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks
52.4 The Reinspection Project
52.5 Summary and Benefits
Reference
53 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection
KONRAD REBER
53.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing
53.1.1 Introduction
53.1.2 How Eddy Current Testing (ECT) Works
53.1.3 Limitations for Pipeline Inspection
53.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing
53.2.1 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing (RFEC)
53.2.2 Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) Testing
53.2.3 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (SLOFEC (TM), MEC (TM), Magcontrol (TM))
53.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection
53.3.1 Standard EC Applications
53.3.2 Remote Field and Low Frequency Testing
53.3.3 Pulsed Eddy Current Applications
53.3.4 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (MEC (TM), SLOFEC (TM))
References
54 Unpiggable Pipelines
Tom Steinvoorte
54.1 Introduction
54.1.1 What Is an Unpiggable Pipeline?
54.1.2 The Main Challenges
54.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach
54.2.1 Pipeline Modification
54.2.2 Cable-Operated Inspection
54.2.3 Modification of Existing Tools
54.2.4 Self-Propelled Inspection
54.2.5 Selection Process
54.3 Free-Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections
54.3.1 Bidirectional Inspection
54.3.2 ILI Tools for Launch Valve Operation
54.3.3 Low-Pressure Inspection of Gas Pipelines
54.3.4 Multi-Diameter Inspection
54.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions
54.4.1 UT-Based Crawlers
54.4.2 MFL-Based Crawlers
54.4.3 Others
References
Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information
55 In-The-Ditch Pipeline Inspection
Greg Zinter
55.1 Overview
55.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines
55.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program
55.3.1 Safety
55.3.2 Verification and Advancement of Technology
55.4 Pipeline Coatings
55.4.1 Asphalt or Coal Tar Enamel
55.4.2 Tape Wrap
55.4.3 Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE)
55.5 Types of Anomalies
55.5.1 Introduction
55.5.2 Volumetric
55.5.3 Planar
55.5.4 Geometric
55.6 NDE Measurement Technologies
55.6.1 Visual Assessment
55.6.2 Manual Measurement
55.6.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection
55.6.4 Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)
55.6.5 Laser Profilometry
55.7 Excavation Package
55.8 Data Collection
55.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment
55.10 Data Management
55.10.1 Quality Control
55.10.2 Reporting
55.11 Recent Technological Developments
55.11.1 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT)
55.11.2 Structured Light
55.11.3 Ultrasonic
55.11.4 Eddy Current
55.12 Summary
Acknowledgments
Reference
Bibliography
56 Flaw Assessment
Ted L. Anderson
56.1 Overview
56.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental?
56.1.2 Material Properties for Flaw Assessment
56.1.3 Effect of Notch Acuity
56.2 Assessing Metal Loss
56.3 Crack Assessment
56.3.1 The Log-Secant Model for Longitudinal Cracks
56.3.2 The Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD)
56.3.3 Pressure Cycle Fatigue Analysis
56.4 Dents
References
57 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities
Greg Szuch, Mike Reed, and Keith Leewis
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Elements of a F-IMP
57.2.1 Scope of the Program
57.2.2 Goals of the Program
57.2.3 Threat Identification/Management
57.2.4 Risk Assessment/Management
57.2.5 Monitoring Inspections and Integrity Assessments
57.2.6 Quality Control
57.2.7 Communications
57.3 Building a Facility Integrity Plan
57.3.1 Where to Start?
57.3.2 Continuous Improvement
57.4 Final Thoughts
References
Bibliography: Essential Reading
58 Pipeline Geohazard Detection Using Satellite InSAR
Murray Down and Jon Leighton
58.1 Introduction: Why InSAR for Pipelines
58.2 Satelllite InSAR Simplified
58.2.1 Line of Sight
58.2.2 Imaging Perspectives
58.2.3 Single-Look vs Dual-Look
58.2.4 Geometric Distortion
58.2.5 Coherence
58.2.6 Permafrost
58.3 Specifying InSAR Requirements
58.3.1 Data
58.3.2 Historical Analysis
Bibliography
59 Integrity Management of Pipelines with Cracking
Michael Palmer
59.1 Introduction
59.2 What Are Cracks and How Do We Find Them?
59.2.1 Key Learning Points
59.3 Integrity Assessment of Cracks
59.3.1 Assessment Inputs
59.3.2 Assessment Methods
59.3.3 Crack Growth
59.3.4 Key Learning Points
59.4 What Can Be Done to Manage the Integrity of a Pipeline with Cracks?
59.4.1 Understanding the Threat
59.4.2 Integrity Management Tools
59.4.3 Long-Term Integrity Management
59.4.4 Key Learning Points
References
PART VIII MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT, REUSE, AND ABANDONMENT
60 Hydrogen and the Energy Transition
Neil Gallon and Adrian Horsley
60.1 Introduction
60.1.1 Colorful Hydrogen
60.1.2 Current Hydrogen Demand
60.1.3 The Future of Hydrogen
60.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
60.3 Designing or Repurposing a Hydrogen Pipeline
60.3.1 Materials of Construction
60.3.2 Design Pressure
60.3.3 Construction Welding
60.3.4 Repurposing of Pipelines to Hydrogen
60.4 Differences in the Integrity Management Approach between Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipelines
60.4.1 Probability of Failure
60.4.2 Consequence
60.4.3 Implications for Integrity Management in Hydrogen
References
61 Pipeline Cleaning
Randy L. Roberts
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Contaminates
61.3 Progressive Pigging
61.4 Pig Types
61.4.1 Poly Foam
61.4.2 Unibody
61.4.3 Steel Mandrel
61.4.4 Polyurethanes
61.5 Durometer
61.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning
61.7 On-Line or Off-Line
61.8 Cleaning a Pipeline
61.8.1 Typical Pigging Procedures
61.8.2 Pipeline Cleaners and Diluents
61.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be?
61.9.1 Single Diameter Pipelines
61.9.2 Multi-Diameter Pipelines
61.10 Summary
References
62 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure
Brian N. Leis
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Background
62.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline Construction
62.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for "Older" Pipelines
62.4.1 System Expansion and Construction Era
62.4.2 Qualitative Assessment of Construction Era and Incident Frequency
62.4.3 Quantitative Assessment of Construction Era and Incident Frequency
62.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, and Regulations
62.5.1 Pipeline Codes and Standards
62.5.2 Pipeline Regulations
62.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines
62.6.1 "Early" Construction Practices
62.6.2 "Vintage" Construction Practices-An Era of Change
62.6.3 Summary and a Brief Look Forward at the "Modern" Construction Era
62.7 Management Approach and Challenges
62.7.1 Threat Identification and Assessment
62.7.2 Inspection and Condition Monitoring
62.7.3 Life-Cycle Management
62.8 Closure
Acknowledgments
References
63 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves
William A. Bruce, Melissa Gould, and John Kiefner
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Background
63.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves
63.3.1 Type A Sleeves (Reinforcing)
63.3.2 Type B Sleeves (Pressure Containing)
63.3.3 Installation and Inspection of Full-Encirclement Sleeves
63.3.4 Defect Repair Using Composite Materials
63.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced Composite Repairs
63.4.1 Applicability to Various Defect Types
63.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
63.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline
63.5.1 Primary Concerns
63.5.2 Preventing Burnthrough
63.5.3 Preventing Hydrogen Cracking
63.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
64 Pipeline Repair
Robert Smyth and David Futch
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Background
64.3 Defect Identification
64.4 Safety
64.5 Protocols
64.6 Recoat
64.7 Pipe Replacement
64.8 Grinding/Sanding
64.9 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves, Type A and B
64.10 Epoxy-Filled Sleeves
64.11 Steel Compression Sleeves
64.12 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves
64.12.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair
64.13 Thin Sheet Steel Coil Wrap
64.14 Hot Tapping
64.15 Direct Deposition Welding
64.16 Mechanical Clamps
64.17 Temporary Repairs
64.18 Applicability to Various Defect Types
References
65 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup
Merv Fingas
65.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview
65.1.1 How Often Do Spills Occur?
65.1.2 Pipelines
65.2 Response to Oil Spills
65.2.1 Oil Spill Contingency Plans
65.2.2 Activation of Contingency Plans
65.2.3 Training
65.2.4 Supporting Studies and Sensitivity Mapping
65.2.5 Oil Spill Cooperatives
65.2.6 The Effectiveness of Cleanup
65.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties
65.3.1 The Composition of Oil
65.3.2 Properties of Oil
65.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment
65.4.1 An Overview of Weathering
65.4.2 Evaporation
65.4.3 Emulsification and Water Uptake
65.4.4 Biodegradation
65.4.5 Spreading
65.4.6 Movement of Oil Slicks on Water
65.4.7 Sinking and Over Washing
65.4.8 Spill Modeling
65.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills
65.5.1 Sampling and Laboratory Analysis
65.5.2 Detection and Surveillance
65.6 Containment on Water
65.6.1 Types of Booms and Their Construction
65.6.2 Uses of Booms
65.6.3 Boom Failures
65.6.4 Sorbent Booms and Barriers
65.7 Oil Recovery on Water
65.7.1 Skimmers
65.7.2 Sorbents
65.7.3 Manual Recovery
65.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal
65.8.1 Temporary Storage
65.8.2 Pumps
65.8.3 Vacuum Systems
65.8.4 Recovery from the Water Subsurface
65.8.5 Separation
65.8.6 Decontamination
65.8.7 Disposal
65.9 Spill-Treating Agents
65.10 In Situ Burning
65.10.1 Advantages
65.10.2 Disadvantages
65.10.3 Ignition and What Will Burn
65.10.4 Burn Efficiency and Rates
65.10.5 Use of Containment
65.10.6 Emissions from Burning Oil
65.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration
65.11.1 Behavior of Oil on Shorelines
65.11.2 Types of Shorelines
65.11.3 Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT)
65.11.4 Cleanup Methods
65.11.5 Recommended Cleanup Methods
65.12 Oil Spills on Land
65.12.1 Behavior of Oil on Land
65.12.2 Movement of Oil on Land Surfaces
65.12.3 Habitats/Ecosystems
65.12.4 Cleanup of Surface Spills
65.12.5 Natural Recovery
65.12.6 Removal of Excess Oil
65.12.7 Other Cleanup Methods
65.12.8 Cleanup of Subsurface Spills
References
66 Pipeline Abandonment
Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes
66.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment?
66.2 Abandonment Planning
66.2.1 Removal or Abandon in Place
66.2.2 Consultation
66.2.3 Abandonment Plan Outline
66.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities
66.3.1 Contamination Remediation
66.3.2 Pipeline Cleaning
66.3.3 Removal of Facilities and Apparatus
66.3.4 Water Bodies
66.3.5 Transportation and Utility Crossings
66.3.6 Right-of-Way Restoration
66.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues
66.4.1 Ground Subsidence
66.4.2 Pipe Deterioration and Collapse
66.4.3 Pipe Exposure
66.4.4 Water Conduit Effect
66.4.5 Slope Stability
66.5 Post-Abandonment Care
66.5.1 Monitoring and Maintenance
66.5.2 Land Use Changes
66.5.3 Liability
66.5.4 Financial Resources
References
PART IX RISK MANAGEMENT
67 Risk Management of Pipelines
Lynne C. Kaley
67.1 Overview
67.1.1 Risk-Based Inspection for Pipelines
67.1.2 Scope
67.1.3 Risk Analysis
67.1.4 The RBI Approach
67.1.5 Risk Reduction and Inspection Planning
67.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches
67.2.1 API Industry Standards for RBI
67.2.2 Basic Risk Categories
67.2.3 Alternative RBI Approaches
67.2.4 Qualitative Approaches to RBI
67.2.5 Quantitative RBI Analysis
67.3 Development of Inspection Programs
67.3.1 Introduction
67.3.2 Inspection Techniques and Effectiveness
67.3.3 Damage Types
67.3.4 Probability of Detection
67.3.5 Reducing Risk through Inspection
67.4 Putting RBI into Practice
67.4.1 A Continuum of Approach
67.4.2 Qualitative versus Quantitative Examples
67.4.3 Qualitative Example
67.4.4 Quantitative Example
67.4.5 Optimizing the Inspection Program
67.4.6 Example Problem Conclusions
67.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies
67.5.1 Summary
67.5.2 Ten Criteria for Selecting the Most Appropriate Level of RBI
67.5.3 Justifying Costs
References
Bibliography
68 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management with Lessons Learned
Binder Singh and Ben Poblete
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions
68.3 Life Cycle
68.3.1 Fitness for Corrosion Service
68.3.2 Conventional and Performance-Based Corrosion Management
68.3.3 Corrosion Risk-Based Performance Goals
68.3.4 Inherent Safe Design (ISD) and Project Phases of a Production Development
68.3.5 Link between ISD and Corrosion Management
68.3.6 Risk-Based Inspection and Monitoring
68.3.7 Life Extension
68.4 Case Histories
68.4.1 Fit-for-Purpose Solutions
68.4.2 Methods and Techniques of Failure Analysis
68.4.3 Failure Mechanisms and Excursions outside the Design Envelope
68.4.4 Corrosion and Integrity Risk
68.4.5 Corrosion Failures
68.4.6 Localized Corrosion Mechanisms in the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry
68.4.7 Pictorial Gallery of Localized Corrosion and Cracking
68.4.8 Failure Analysis Check Sheet Listing
68.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations
68.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring Methodologies
68.6.1 Risk and Reliability in the Corrosion Context
68.6.2 Safety Management Systems and Corrosion Risk
68.6.3 Formal or Structured Hazard or Risk Assessment
68.7 Lessons Learned, Recommendations, and Future Strategies
68.7.1 Lessons Learned - Update and Discussion
68.7.2 Recommendations and Future Strategies
Caveat and Acknowledgments
References
Bibliography
69 Pipeline Operational Intrusions
Errol R. A. Eccles
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Operations Management and Risk
69.3 Risk Assessment
69.3.1 High-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.2 Medium-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.3 Lower-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.4 Hazards and Controls
69.3.5 Risk Matrix
69.4 Operations Management
69.4.1 Standard Operating Procedures
69.4.2 Checklist
69.4.3 Shift Log
69.4.4 Shift Handover
69.5 Process Safety Management
69.5.1 Mechanical Integrity
69.6 Work Management
69.6.1 Planning
69.6.2 Scheduling and Prioritization
69.6.3 Risk Assessment for Work
69.6.4 Higher-Risk Work, Permitted Work
69.6.5 As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP)
69.6.6 Graphics
69.6.7 Icons
69.6.8 Lessons Learned
69.6.9 Information Technology
69.7 Emergency and Incident Management
69.8 Management of Change (MOC)
69.9 Competence
69.10 Risk Management
69.10.1 Safety Risk
69.10.2 Cumulative Risk
69.10.3 Risk Mitigation
69.10.4 Barrier Management
69.10.5 Example of Risks
69.11 Information Technology (IT)
69.11.1 Security and Visibility
69.11.2 Digital Risk Assessment
69.11.3 Lessons Learned
69.11.4 Searchability
69.11.5 Reporting
69.11.6 History
69.11.7 Printing
69.12 Summary
69.13 Terms and Definitions
Acknowledgments
References
PART X CASE HISTORIES
70 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking on Onshore Pipelines Driven by Cathodic Protection - Case Studies
Pablo Cazenave, Katina Jimenez, Ming Gao, and Ravi Krishnamurthy
70.1 Background
70.2 Investigation of a Gas Transmission Pipeline Failure in Argentina
70.2.1 Reconstruction of the Failed Pipes and Data Gathering
70.2.2 Environmental and Operational Assessment
70.2.3 Chemical and Mechanical Testing
70.2.4 Fractographic and Metallographic Evaluations
70.3 Mechanisms of Cracking
70.3.1 HAC and HIC
70.3.2 Comparison Between HAC and NNpHSCC Mechanisms
70.3.3 Hydrogen Evolution: Cathodic Protection vs Free Corrosion
70.3.4 Cathodic Protection and pH of the Electrolyte
70.3.5 Coating Disbondment and Cathodic Protection Shielding
70.3.6 Crack dormancy/blunting
70.4 Similar Cases in Europe, North America, and the Literature
70.4.1 Natural Gas Pipeline in Europe
70.4.2 Refined Products Pipeline in the USA
70.4.3 Similar Cases in Literature
70.5 Effects of CP-related Hydrogen on Other Types of Cracking
70.6 Mitigation strategies
70.7 Closing remarks
References
71 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study-Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions
Arnold L. Lewis II
71.1 Introduction
71.1.1 Statement of the Buckle/Collapse Problem
71.1.2 Observations
71.2 Study Conclusions
71.2.1 Conclusions for Sources of Hydrogen in an Annulus of a Pipeline Repair Sleeve
71.2.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from inside the Pipeline into an Annulus
71.2.3 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from outside the Repair Sleeve into an Annulus
71.2.4 Factors Affecting the Rate of Annulus Pressure Increase
71.2.5 Factors Affecting the Time Required for a Buckle/Collapse Failure
71.2.6 Main Sources and Considerations for Hydrogen Gas Trapped in the Annulus of a Pipeline Repair Sleeve
71.2.7 Solutions to Mitigate Buckle/Collapse Failures under Pipeline Repair Sleeves
71.3 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
72 Shell FLAGS Inspection Case Study
J. Nonemaker, T. Steinvoorte, and R. Subramanian
72.1 Introduction
72.2 The Challenge
72.3 The Solution
72.4 Field Work
72.5 Result
73 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multi-Diameter Pipelines - A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project
Luciano Baptista, Tom Steinvoorte, Stephan Harmsen, and Carlos Enrique Sabido
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Background
73.3 Challenge
73.4 Solution
73.5 Scope
73.6 Tool Design
73.6.1 Multi-Diameter Cleaning Tools
73.6.2 Key Design Features of the ILI Tool
73.7 Testing
73.7.1 Bypass Tests
73.7.2 Pump Tests
73.7.3 Pull Tests
73.8 Gauging and Inspection Runs
73.8.1 Key Challenges
73.8.2 Cleaning, Gauging, and Inspecting Route 2.1
73.9 Benefit
References
GLOSSARY
Part 1: Abbreviations
Part 2: Selected Terms
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
PART I DIGITALIZATION OF PIPELINES
1 Digital Future of Pipeline Integrity
Gaurav Singh
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Digital Integrity Framework
1.2.1 General Pipeline Integrity Framework
1.2.2 Digital Framework for Pipeline Integrity Management Systems
1.2.3 Data Management
1.2.4 Integrity Management
1.3 Fast Forward Digital Future Technologies
1.3.1 Integrity Data Warehouse
1.3.2 Descriptive Analytics: What Has Happened
1.3.3 Predictive Analytics: What Will Happen?
1.3.4 Use Case: Virtual ILI
1.3.5 Space-based Digital Asset Monitoring (Earth Observation)
1.3.6 Radar
1.3.7 SAR time Series
1.4 Technology Transition with Energy Transition
References
2 Cybersecurity and Safety Implications of Pipelines
Ben Miller and Jason Christopher
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Defining Industrial Cybersecurity
2.3 The Industrial Cybersecurity Challenge
2.4 Industrial Intrusion Case Studies - A Short History
2.5 Industrial Cybersecurity Considerations for Pipeline Operations
2.5.1 Is It Safe?
2.5.2 Dependent Systems and the Systems-of-Systems View
2.5.3 Understanding Vulnerabilities and the Engineering Mindset
2.6 The Five ICS Cybersecurity Critical Controls
2.6.1 Control No. 1:ICS-Specific Incident Response Plan
2.6.2 Control No. 2:Defensible Architecture
2.6.3 Control No. 3:ICS Network Visibility and Monitoring
2.6.4 Control No. 4:Secure Remote Access
2.6.5 Control No. 5:Risk-Based Vulnerability Management Program
2.7 Getting Started: Common High-Impact Scenarios for Pipeline Operations
2.8 Conclusion
References
3 Practical Applications of Machine Learning to Pipeline Integrity
Michael Gloven
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Machine Learning Fundamentals
3.2.1 Overview
3.2.2 Getting Started
3.2.3 Learning Methods
3.2.4 Supervised vs. Unsupervised Learning
3.2.5 Model Cross-Validation and Testing
3.2.6 Model Performance
3.2.7 Data and Sources
3.2.8 Data Quality
3.2.9 Special Considerations for Pipeline Networks
3.2.10 Data Pre-Processing
3.3 Supervised Learning - Classification
3.3.1 Third Party Damage Use Case
3.3.2 Training Data
3.3.3 Select Method and Learn Model
3.3.4 Model Testing
3.3.5 Confusion Matrix
3.3.6 Learning Curves
3.3.7 Predictor Importance
3.3.8 Apply Model & Application of Results
3.4 Supervised Learning - Regression
3.4.1 External Corrosion Growth Rate Use Case
3.4.2 Training Data
3.4.3 Select Method and Learn Model
3.4.4 Model Testing
3.4.5 Unity Plots
3.4.6 Learning Curve
3.4.7 Predictor Importance
3.4.8 Apply Model & Application of Results
3.5 Unsupervised Learning
3.5.1 SCC Susceptibility Use Case
3.5.2 Training Data
3.5.3 Cluster Analysis
3.5.4 Predictor Variance Analysis
3.5.5 Partition Analysis and Best-k
3.5.6 Perform k-means and Plot Analysis
3.6 Final Thoughts
3.7 Summary
References
Bibliography
4 Pipeline Corrosion Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning
Khairul Chowdhury, Binder Singh, and Shahidullah Kawsar
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Background
4.3 Analysis Tool: Automated Predictive Analytics Computation Systems
4.3.1 Solution Methodology Using Machine Learning
4.4 Problem Example: Predicting Failure by External and Internal Corrosion
4.4.1 Historical Data
4.4.2 Analysis and Intelligence
4.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
PART II DESIGN
5 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines in a Low-Carbon Economy
Daniel Sandana
5.1 Introduction
5.2 CCUS: An Enabler of Decarbonization
5.2.1 Carbon Capture: Back to the Future
5.2.2 The CCUS Landscape Worldwide
5.2.3 Existing CO2 Pipelines
5.3 Transportation of CO2 by Pipeline: Operations
5.3.1 Properties of CO2 and Operational Considerations
5.3.2 Presence of Impurities and CO2 Compositions
5.3.3 Effect of Impurities on Transportation
5.4 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Key Integrity Challenges
5.4.1 Pipeline (Internal) Time-Dependent Threats
5.4.2 Fracture Control
5.4.3 Integrity Experience of Existing CO2 Pipelines and Cautions
5.5 Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines
5.5.1 Defining CO2 Stream Specifications
5.5.2 Understanding Line Pipe Material Properties for Fracture Control
5.5.3 Defining Integrity Baseline Condition and Confirming MAOP
5.5.4 Managing Safe Operations: Inspections
References
6 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS)
Katherine Jonsson, Ray Goodfellow, Douglas Evans, and Chitman Lutchman
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity
6.3 Regulatory Requirements
6.4 What is a PIMS?
6.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements
6.6 PIMS Function Map
6.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational
6.8 Do: Execute
6.9 Check: Assurance and Verification
6.10 Act: Management Review
6.11 Culture
6.12 Summary
References
7 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
Rumi Mohammad, Ian Verhappen, and Ramin Vali
7.1 Introduction
7.2 SCADA Computer Servers
7.3 SCADA Computer Workstations
7.4 Hierarchy
7.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases
7.6 Fault Tolerance
7.7 Redundancy
7.8 High Availability
7.9 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems
7.10 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis
7.11 Incident Review and Replay
7.12 Data Quality
7.13 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover
7.14 Training
7.15 SCADA Security
7.16 Cybersecurity
7.16.1 Reference Architecture
7.16.2 Control Layer
7.16.3 Demilitarized Zone (DMZ)
7.16.4 Firewalls and Isolation
7.16.5 Cybersecurity Standards Sources
7.16.6 Management of Change
7.16.7 SCADA User Permissions and Area of Responsibility
7.16.8 Zero Trust
7.16.9 Web Connection
7.17 SCADA Standards
7.18 Pipeline Industry Applications
7.18.1 Leak Detection
7.18.2 Batch Tracking
7.18.3 Dynamic Pipeline Highlight
7.19 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
7.19.1 Overview of an ML AI Based Application
7.19.2 Predictive Flow Models
7.19.3 Optimization Engines
7.19.4 Decision Support and Autonomous Operations
7.20 Communication Media
7.20.1 Ethernet (Copper) Data Cable
7.20.2 Leased Line
7.20.3 Dial-Up Line
7.20.4 Optical Fiber
7.20.5 Radio Communications
7.20.6 License-Free Spectra
7.20.7 Licensed Radio
7.20.8 Microwave
7.20.9 Satellite
7.20.10 Cellular Data
7.20.11 Low-Data-Rate Wireless
7.21 Communications Infrastructure
7.22 Communications Integrity
7.23 RTUs and PLCs
7.24 Database
7.25 User-Defined Programs
7.26 RTU/PLC Integrity
7.27 Safety Systems
7.27.1 Safety Integrity Level (SIL)
7.27.2 Safety Instrumented System (SIS)
7.27.3 Black Channel
7.28 IOT/IIOT
7.29 Electrical Classification Compliance
7.29.1 Area Classifications
Acronyms, Abbreviations, Terms
Bibliography
8 Material Selection for Fracture Control
William Tyson
8.1 Overview of Fracture Control
8.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation
8.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation
8.4 Toughness Measurement
8.4.1 Toughness Measurement: Impact Tests
8.4.2 Toughness Measurement: J, CTOD, and CTOA
8.5 Current Status
References
9 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines
Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi
9.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts
9.1.1 Overview of Strain-Based Design
9.1.2 Deterministic versus Probabilistic Design Methods
9.1.3 Limit States
9.1.4 Displacement Control versus Load Control
9.1.5 Strain-Based Design Applications
9.2 Strain Demand
9.2.1 Overview
9.2.2 Challenging Environments and Strain Demand
9.2.3 Strain Levels and Analysis Considerations
9.3 Strain Capacity
9.3.1 Overview
9.3.2 Compressive Strain Capacity
9.3.3 Tensile Strain Capacity
9.4 Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing
9.5 Summary
References
10 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines
Mavis Sika Okyere
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Design Pressure
10.2.1 Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure
10.2.2 Maximum Operating Pressure
10.2.3 Surge Pressure
10.2.4 Test Pressure
10.3 Design Factor
10.4 Determination of Components of Stress
10.4.1 Hoop and Radial Stresses
10.4.2 Longitudinal Stress
10.4.3 Shear Stress
10.4.4 Equivalent Stress
10.4.5 Limits of Calculated Stress
10.5 Fatigue
10.5.1 Fatigue Life
10.5.2 Fatigue Limit
10.5.3 S-N Curve
10.6 Expansion and Flexibility
10.6.1 Flexibility and Stress Intensification Factors
10.7 Corrosion Allowance
10.7.1 Internal Corrosion Allowance
10.7.2 External Corrosion Allowance
10.7.3 Formulas
10.8 Pipeline Stiffness
10.8.1 Calculation of Pipeline Stiffness
10.8.2 Calculation of Induced Bending Moment
10.9 Pipeline Ovality
10.9.1 Brazier Effect
10.9.2 Ovality of a Buried Pipeline
10.10 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius
10.10.1 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Concrete
10.10.2 Minimum Pipe Bend Radius Calculation Based on Steel
10.10.3 Installation Condition
10.10.4 In-Service Condition
10.11 Pipeline Design for External Pressure
10.11.1 Buried Installation
10.11.2 Above-Ground or Unburied Installation
10.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions
10.13 Summary
Appendix 10.A: Case Study
References
11 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications
Ayman Eltaher
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility
11.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications
11.3.1 Design Challenges
11.3.2 Stress Analysis Challenges
11.3.3 Materials and Manufacturing Challenges
11.4 Typical Pipe Properties
11.5 Technology Qualification
11.6 Additional Resources
11.7 Summary
References
12 Residual Stress in Pipelines
Douglas Hornbach and Paul Prevey
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 The Nature of Residual Stresses
12.1.2 Sources of Residual Stresses
12.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance
12.2.1 Fatigue
12.2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking
12.2.3 Corrosion Fatigue
12.2.4 Effects of Cold Working and Microscopic Residual Stresses
12.3 Residual Stress Measurement
12.3.1 Center Hole Drilling Method
12.3.2 Ring Core Method
12.3.3 Slitting and Slotting Method
12.3.4 Deep Hole Drill Method
12.3.5 Diffraction Methods
12.3.6 Synchrotron X-Ray and Neutron Diffraction: Full Stress Tensor Determination
12.3.7 Magnetic Barkhausen Noise Method
12.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses
12.4.1 Shot Peening
12.4.2 Roller or Ball Burnishing and Low Plasticity Burnishing
12.4.3 Laser Shock Peening
12.4.4 Thermal Stress Relief
12.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work
12.5.1 Case Study 1: Restoration of the Fatigue Performance of Corrosion and Fretting Damaged 4340 Steel
12.5.2 Case Study 2: Mitigating SCC in Stainless Steel Weldments
12.5.3 Case Study 3: Mitigation of Sulfide Stress Cracking in P110 Oil Field Coupling
12.5.4 Case Study 4: Improving Corrosion Fatigue Performance and Damage Tolerance of 410 Stainless Steel
12.5.5 Case Study 5: Improving the Fatigue Performance of Downhole Tubular Components
References
13 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity
Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis
13.2.1 Overview
13.2.2 Pipeline Routing
13.2.3 Geotechnical Investigations
13.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design
13.3.1 Overview
13.3.2 Physical Modeling
13.3.3 Computational Engineering Tools
13.3.4 Guidance on Best Practice to Enhance Computational Pipe/Soil Interaction Analysis
13.3.5 Emerging Research
13.3.6 Soil Constitutive Models
13.3.7 Advancing the State of Art into Engineering Practice through an Integrated Technology Framework
Nomenclature
Acknowledgments
References
14 Human Factors
Lorna Harron
14.1 Introduction
14.2 What Is "Human Factors"?
14.3 The Human in the System
14.4 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors
14.4.1 Example Case Study
14.5 Human Factors and Decision Making
14.5.1 Information Receipt
14.5.2 Information Processing
14.6 Application of Human Factors Guidance
14.7 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making
14.7.1 Satisficing Heuristic
14.7.2 Cue Primacy and Anchoring
14.7.3 Selective Attention
14.7.4 Availability Heuristic
14.7.5 Representativeness Heuristic
14.7.6 Cognitive Tunneling
14.7.7 Confirmation Bias
14.7.8 Framing Bias
14.7.9 Management of Decision-Making Challenges
14.8 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry
14.9 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited
14.10 Tools and Methods
14.11 Summary
References
Bibliography
PART III NONMETALLIC PIPELINES
15 Nonmetallic Composite Pipelines
Niels Grigat, Stephan Koss, Ben Vollbrecht, Tim Moelling, Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum, and Thomas Gries
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials
15.2.1 Composites
15.3 Manufacturing
15.3.1 Filament Winding
15.3.2 Braiding
15.3.3 Pultrusion
15.3.4 Joining Methods
15.4 Applications
15.5 Conclusion
References
PART IV MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION
16 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels
Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development
16.2.1 Thermomechanically Controlled Processing of Pipeline Steels
16.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels
16.3.1 Fracture of Pipeline Steels
16.3.2 Effect of Phase Transformation on the Texture Components
16.3.3 Effect of Austenite Recrystallization on Plate Texture
16.3.4 Effect of Austenite Pancaking on the Rolling Texture
16.3.5 Effect of Finish Rolling in the Intercritical Region
16.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy
16.5 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
17 Pipe Manufacture-Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe
Christoph Kalwa
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Manufacturing Process
17.3 Quality Control Procedures
17.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions
17.5 Typical Fields of Application
18 Pipe Manufacture - Spiral Pipe
Franz Martin Knoop
18.1 Manufacturing Process
18.2 Quality Control Procedures
18.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions
18.4 Typical Fields of Applicability
References
19 Pipe Manufacture-Seamless Tube and Pipe
Rolf Kuemmerling and Klaus Kraemer
19.1 The Rolling Process
19.1.1 Introduction and History
19.1.2 Cross Rolling Technology
19.1.3 Pilger Rolling
19.1.4 Plug Rolling
19.1.5 Mandrel Rolling
19.1.6 Forging
19.1.7 Size Rolling and Stretch Reducing
19.2 Further Processing
19.2.1 Heat Treatment
19.2.2 Quality and In-Process Checks
19.2.3 Finishing Lines
References
20 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines
Nobuyuki Ishikawa
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method
20.2.1 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Full-Scale Test
20.2.2 Standardized Laboratory Evaluation Method for HIC
20.2.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
20.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with HIC Resistance
20.3.1 Effect of Non-Metallic Inclusions
20.3.2 Effect of Center Segregation
20.3.3 Effect of Plate Manufacturing Condition
20.4 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with SSC Resistance under Severe Sour Conditions
20.4.1 SSC Failure Caused by Local Hard Zone
20.4.2 Effect of Surface Hardness on SSC
References
21 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity
David Dorling and James Gianetto
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Construction Welding Applications
21.2.1 Double-Joint Welding
21.2.2 Mainline Welding
21.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding
21.3 Non-destructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment
21.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification
21.4.1 Welding Codes and Standards
21.4.2 Welding Procedures
21.4.3 Welding Procedure Specification
21.4.4 Procedure Qualification Record
21.4.5 Qualification of Welders
21.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking
21.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design
21.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines
21.8 Pipeline Incidents and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action
Appendix 21.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
Appendix 21.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards
Acknowledgements
References
22 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity
Robert O'Grady
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation
22.2.1 Pipeline Installation Loading and Failure Modes
22.2.2 S-Lay Method
22.2.3 J-Lay Method
22.2.4 Reel-Lay Method
22.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation
22.3.1 Vessel Restrictions
22.3.2 Pipeline Integrity Criteria
22.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies
22.4.1 Global Installation Analysis
22.4.2 Methodologies
22.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore
22.5.1 Monitoring Process and Remedial Action
22.5.2 Monitoring Analysis Software
22.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation
22.6.1 Increased Tension and Potential for Local Buckling
22.6.2 Plastic Strains
22.6.3 Prolonged Fatigue Exposure
22.6.4 Design Implications
Reference
Bibliography
PART V THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY
23 Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC): Causes and Mechanisms
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Fundamentals of TLC
23.2.1 Causes of TLC
23.2.2 Characteristics of TLC
23.2.3 Mechanisms of TLC
23.3 Summary: Overall TLC Characteristics in CO2/H2S Environments
References
24 Management of Geohazard Loading during Pipeline Operation
Andy Young
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Nature of Hazards
24.2.1 Landslides
24.2.2 Seismic Hazards
24.2.3 Subsidence
24.2.4 Rivers
24.2.5 Erosion
24.2.6 Additional Geohazards
24.2.7 Morphoclimatic Zones
24.2.8 Other Sources of Loading
24.3 Regulations on Geohazard Management
24.4 Geohazards Management Plan
24.5 Hazard Identification
24.5.1 Inspection Methods
24.5.2 LiDAR Surveys
24.5.3 IMU Inspection
24.5.4 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Screening
24.5.5 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Examples
24.5.6 Assessment of Areas of Bending Strain - Construction
24.5.7 Prioritization of Sites
24.5.8 Use of Bending Strain in Crack Management
24.6 Hazard Evaluation
24.6.1 Ground Model
24.6.2 Performance Limits
24.6.3 Strain Gauges and IMU
24.6.4 Structural Calculations
24.6.5 Axial Loading
24.6.7 Estimation of Risk
24.7 Hazard Mitigation
24.7.1 General
24.7.2 Ground Movement Monitoring
24.7.3 Pipe Monitoring
References
25 Climate Change, Pipeline Corrosion, and Integrity Management
Binder Singh
25.1 Introduction
25.2 ALARP Factor
25.3 Natural or Man-Made?
25.3.1 Swiss Cheese Model
25.4 Engineering Steel and Infrastructure
25.5 Reasons for Optimism
25.6 Discussion and Closing Remarks
Caveat and Acknowledgements
Appendix 25.A Acronyms, Definitions, and Criteria
Appendix 25.B Main Corrosion Terms: Modes and Mechanisms
References
Bibliography
26 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil
Homero Castaneda, Hui Wang, and Omar Rosas
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Background
26.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines
26.3.1 Multiscale Factors Influencing External Corrosion Related to Soil Properties and Conditions
26.3.2 Water Coverage due to Vapor Transportation and Drainage
26.3.3 pH of Soils
26.3.4 Chlorides and Sulfates in Soils
26.3.5 Differential Aeration Corrosion Cells
26.3.6 Microorganisms in Soils
26.3.7 Redox Potential
26.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments
26.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents
26.6 Monitoring and Inspection for Corrosion Characterization under Multiscale Conditions
References
27 Knowledge- and Data-Driven External Corrosion Modeling in Pipelines
Hui Wang, Homero Castaneda, and Sreelakshmi Sreeharan
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Background
27.3 Model Framework and Theory
27.3.1 Workflow for CIPS Data Analysis
27.3.2 Review of Clustering Analysis for Identifying Heterogeneity of Soil Corrosivity
27.3.3 Close Interval Potential Survey and Wavelet Transform
27.3.4 Bayesian Convolutional Neural Network (BCNN)
27.3.5 Reliability Analysis
27.4 Model Application
27.4.1 General Information
27.4.2 Clustering Results
27.4.3 BCNN Results
27.5 Limitations of the Approach
27.6 Conclusion
References
28 Electrochemical Noise to Monitor Corrosion of a Coated Metal
Sarah Leeds
28.1 Introduction
28.1.1 Protective Coatings
28.1.2 History of Electrochemical Noise
28.1.3 What is Electrochemical Noise?
28.2 Electrochemical Noise Method
28.2.1 ENM Equipment and Measurement
28.2.2 Initial study on Portable ENM development
28.2.3 ENM Configuration
28.2.4 ENM Study of a Standard Metal Item
28.2.5 ECN Test Measurements on a Good and a Poor Coating
28.3 Applications of ECN
28.3.1 Examples of the Application of Electrochemical Noise
Acknowledgments
References
29 Telluric Influence on Pipelines
David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference
29.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity
29.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity
29.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields
29.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment
29.6.1 Geomagnetic Activity
29.6.2 Earth Conductivity Structure
29.6.3 Pipeline Response
29.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects
29.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions
29.9 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
30 Factors Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking and Typical Growth Rates
B N Leis
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Research Concerning the Factors Controlling SCC
30.2.1 Early Years through Present-Day: The Roles of Temperature and Potential
30.2.2 Active-Passive Cracking from Smooth Surfaces: The 'Free-Surface Effect'
30.2.3 Effect of Stress: Thresholds and Cracking Speeds for High-pH SCC
30.2.4 Transition from Initiation and Early Growth to Macrocrack Propagation
30.3 Factors Controlling SCC - Service vs Laboratory Cracking
30.4 Quantifying a Bathtub Speed-Life Curve for High-pH SCC
30.4.1 The Bathtub Curve and Its Adaptation to SCC
30.4.2 Simulated Bathtub Life Curves for Susceptible and Resistant Pipe Steels
30.4.3 Incubation
30.4.4 Broadening the ACS Database for Field Cracking
30.4.5 Observations and Practical Takeaways
30.5 Emergence of NN-pH SCC: Its Traits vs High-pH SCC
30.6 Industry Guidance on Crack Speed and the Incidence of SCC
30.6.1 Cracking Speed
30.6.2 Where and When SCC Might Be Anticipated
30.7 Interface between Integrity and Condition Assessment
30.7.1 Background
30.7.2 Detection and Sizing SCC
30.7.3 Reporting Thresholds - Analysis, Implications, and Takeaways
30.8 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
31 Processes for High-pH and Near-Neutral-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking
B N Leis
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Imaging SCC and Related Observations
31.2.1 SCC Imaged along Fracture Surfaces
31.2.2 SCC Imaged on Cross-Sections
31.2.3 SCC Imaged on the OD Surface
31.2.4 Perspective Imaging
31.2.5 Summary
31.3 Compendium of SCC Images: Observations and Discussion
31.3.1 Cracking Imaged on the Pipe OD Surface
31.3.2 Crack Interaction and Coalescence
31.3.3 Fracture Surfaces: Rupture Origins versus Leaks and Stable Cracking
31.3.4 Cracking Imaged in Metallographic Cross-Sections
31.4 Crack Initiation and Growth Behavior on Pipelines
31.4.1 Insights into the Initiation and Early Growth Processes
31.4.2 Crack Growth into the Pipe Wall
31.4.3 Trending the Phenomenology of Field Cracking
31.4.4 Closure between Field Phenomenology and Laboratory-Based Modeling
31.4.5 Effects of Crack Blunting - Implications for Hydrotesting and Dormancy
31.4.6 Blunting and Other Effects that Trace to Localized Corrosion
31.4.7 Dormancy and Intermittent Growth
31.5 Summary and Key Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
32 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion
Jason S. Lee and Brenda J. Little
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Materials
32.3 Microorganisms
32.3.1 Water
32.3.2 Electron Donors and Acceptors
32.3.3 Nutrients
32.4 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines
32.4.1 Types of Pipelines
32.4.2 Detection, Monitoring, and Diagnosing
32.4.3 Modeling
32.4.4 Control
32.5 External Corrosion of Pipelines
32.5.1 Types of Pipelines
32.5.2 Detection, Monitoring, and Diagnosing
32.5.3 Modeling
32.5.4 Control
32.6 Conclusions
References
33 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines
Robert E. Melchers
33.1 Introduction
33.2 Asset Management and Prediction
33.3 Pitting
33.3.1 Terminology
33.3.2 Initiation and Nucleation of Pits
33.3.3 Development of Pitting
33.3.4 Biological Influences
33.3.5 Trends in Corrosion with Time
33.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth
33.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development
33.6 Structural Reliability
33.6.1 Formulation
33.6.2 Failure Conditions
33.7 Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth
33.7.1 The Gumbel Distribution
33.7.2 Dependence between Pit Depths
33.7.3 EV Distribution for Deep Pits
33.7.4 Implications for Reliability Analysis
33.8 Pitting at Welds
33.8.1 Short-Term Exposures
33.8.2 Estimates of Long-Term Pitting Development
33.8.3 EV Statistics for Weld Pit Depth
33.9 Case Study-Water Injection Pipelines
33.10 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgments
References
34 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation
Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Dent Formation Process and Types of Dents
34.2.1 Dent Formation Process
34.2.2 Types of Dents
34.2.3 Coincident Features
34.3 In-Line-Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.3.1 Geometry (Caliper) Sensing Technologies
34.3.2 Coincident Damage Sensing (Dent with Metal Loss) Technologies
34.3.3 Capabilities and Performance of the In-Line-Inspection Technologies for Detection, Discrimination and Sizing of Mechanical Damage
34.3.4 Closing Remarks
34.4 Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage Characterization
34.4.1 In-Ditch LaserScan Technology
34.4.2 Application of the Improved In-Ditch Measurement Technology
34.5 Assessment of Severity of Mechanical Damage
34.5.1 Regulatory and Industry Standard Guidance
34.5.2 Depth-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.3 Static Strain-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.4 A Combined Strain-Based and MFL-Based Approach to Evaluate Dent with Metal Loss
34.5.5 Dynamic Strain-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.5.6 Fatigue-Based Dent Severity Assessment
34.6 Mitigation and Repairs
34.6.1 Improved Strain-Based Dent Severity Criteria - Alternatives
34.6.2 Repairs
34.7 Continued Challenges
References
35 Sulfide Stress Cracking
Russell D. Kane
35.1 Introduction
35.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking?
35.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines
35.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms
35.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC
35.5.1 Availability of Liquid Water
35.5.2 pH and H2S Partial Pressure
35.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels
35.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC
References
36 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service
Russell D. Kane
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC
36.2.1 Environmental Variables in FGE
36.2.2 Metallurgical Variables
36.2.3 Mechanical Variables
36.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC
36.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC
36.4.1 Identification
36.4.2 Inspection
36.4.3 Mitigation
36.5 Path Forward
References
Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers
37 AC Corrosion
Lars Vendelbo Nielsen
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Basic Understanding
37.2.1 The Spread Resistance
37.2.2 The Effect of AC on DC Polarization
37.2.3 The Vicious Circle of AC Corrosion-Mechanistic Approach
37.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management
37.3.1 Criteria
37.3.2 Current Criteria
37.3.3 Mitigation Measures
37.3.4 Monitoring and Management
References
Bibliography
38 Erosion-Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley,
Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon,
Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Solid Particle Erosion
38.3 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2 Environment with Sand
38.4 Erosion-Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron Carbonate Erosivity
38.4.1 CO2 Partial Pressure
38.4.2 pH
38.4.3 Temperature
38.4.4 Flow Velocity
38.4.5 Supersaturation
38.4.6 Erosion of Scale
38.4.7 Erosion-Corrosion
38.4.8 Erosion-Corrosion Model Development
38.5 Erosion-Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
38.5.1 Erosion-Corrosion of Carbon Steels versus CRAs
38.5.2 Erosion-Corrosion with CRAs under High Erosivity Conditions
38.5.3 Repassivation of CRAs
38.5.4 Effect of Microstructure and Crystallography on Erosion-Corrosion
38.5.5 Summary
38.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion-Corrosion
38.6.1 Effect of Sand Erosion on Chemical Inhibition
38.6.2 Modeling and Prediction of Inhibited Erosion-Corrosion
38.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
39 Black Powder in Oil and Gas Pipelines
Abdelmounam M. Sherik
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Impacts on Operations and Customers
39.3 Internal Corrosion of Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines
39.3.1 Sources of Moisture
39.3.2 Formation Mechanisms
39.3.3 Formation Rate
39.4 Analysis Techniques
39.4.1 Sample Collection
39.4.2 Test Methods
39.5 Black Powder Movement
39.6 Erosive Properties of Black Powder
39.7 Black Powder Management Methods
39.7.1 Removal Strategies
39.7.2 Prevention Strategy
39.8 Monitoring Black Powder
39.9 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder
39.9.1 Worker Protection and Contamination Control
39.10 Solutions
39.11 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
PART VI PROTECTION
40 Mitigating Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC) Using Corrosion Inhibitors: Types and Application Methods
Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot
40.1 Introduction
40.2 Inhibitors Used to Mitigate TLC
40.2.1 Amine-Based Inhibitors
40.2.2 Imidazoline-Based Inhibitors
40.2.3 Thiol-Based Inhibitors
40.2.4 Monoethylene Glycol-Based Inhibitors
40.3 Application Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors under TLC Conditions
40.3.1 Continuous or Periodic Injection of Inhibitors into the Flow Stream
40.3.2 Conventional Batch Treatments with or without Pigs
40.3.3 Inhibitor Application with Foams or Gels
40.3.4 Applications of Inhibitors with Specialty Pigs
40.3.5 Comparison of Inhibitor-Application Methods
References
41 External Coatings
Doug Waslen
41.1 Introduction and Background
41.2 Coating Performance
41.2.1 Needs Assessment
41.3 Product Testing
41.3.1 Cathodic Disbondment Resistance
41.3.2 Adhesion
41.3.3 Flexibility
41.3.4 Aging
41.3.5 Temperature Rating
41.3.6 Damage Resistance
41.3.7 Cure
41.3.8 Electrical Isolation
41.4 Standards and Application Specification
41.4.1 Quality Assurance
41.5 Field-Applied Coatings
41.6 Coating Types and Application
41.6.1 Fusion Bond Epoxy
41.6.2 Extruded Olefins
41.6.3 Liquid Epoxy and Urethane
41.6.4 Composite Coatings
41.6.5 Girth Weld Coatings
41.6.6 Specialty Coatings
41.6.7 Repair Coatings
Reference
42 Thermoplastic Liners For Oilfield Pipelines
James F. Mason
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Codes and Standards
42.3 The Installation Process
42.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects
42.5 Liner Materials
42.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner
42.7 Lined Pipeline Systems-Application Examples
42.7.1 Liners in Hydrocarbon Flow Lines
42.7.2 Grooved PE Liners
42.7.3 Liners in a Reeled, Water Injection Pipeline
42.7.4 Liners in Sour Gas and Gas Condensate Pipelines
42.7.5 PA11 Liners in Sour Gas Pipelines
References
43 Cathodic Protection
Sarah Leeds
43.1 Introduction
43.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection
43.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection
43.3.1 Mechanism of Cathodic Protection
43.3.2 E-pH Pourbaix Diagram
43.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied
43.4.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection System
43.4.2 Sacrificial Anode Design
43.4.3 Anode Material
43.4.4 Impressed Current System
43.4.5 Sacrificial Anode versus Impressed Current Systems
43.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection
43.5.1 Current Requirement for a Cathodic Protection System
43.5.2 What is the Most Economical Way for Supplying Current?
43.5.3 How Is the Protective Current Distributed over the Structure?
43.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection
43.6.1 Beneficial Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in Conjunction with Coatings
43.6.2 Adverse Effects of Cathodic Protection Used in Conjunction with Coatings
43.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems
43.7.1 Commissioning of Cathodic Protection System
43.7.2 Monitoring Test Stations (Test Points)
43.7.3 Annual Compliance Surveys
43.7.4 Direct Current Voltage Gradient Surveys-DCVG
43.7.5 %IR Severity
43.7.6 Coating Fault Grading
43.7.7 Close Interval Potential Surveys - CIPS/CIS
43.7.8 Soil Resistivity
43.7.9 Corrosion Coupons
43.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria
43.8.1 ?850mV versus Cu/CuSO4 with the Cathodic Protection Current Applied Criterion
43.8.2 Polarized Potential of ?850mV Measured to a Cu/CuSO4 Reference Electrode Criterion
43.8.3 100mV Polarization Criterion
43.8.4 Net Current Flow Criterion
43.8.5 Use of Criteria
References
PART VII INSPECTION AND MONITORING
44 Using Cathodic Protection for Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Damage and Interference
Gerard Huss, Carine Lacroix, Eric Parizot, and David Xu
44.1 Introduction
44.2 Background
44.3 Testing Procedure and Process
44.3.1 Theory
44.3.2 Proof of Concept
44.3.3 Other Parameters
44.3.4 Demonstrator
44.4 Real-Time Detection of an Electrical Short between a Pipeline and Its Casing
44.5 Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Aggression on a Pipeline
44.6 Real-Time Detection of a Lightning Strike
44.7 Discussion
References
45 Airborne LiDAR for Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection
Ashwin Yerasi
45.1 Introduction
45.2 LiDAR Measurements
45.3 Wavelength Bands
45.4 Operational Techniques
45.4.1 DIAL Principle
45.4.2 TDLAS Principle
45.5 Ancillary Components
45.6 Inspection Report
45.7 LiDAR Developments for Natural Gas Pipeline Leak Surveillance
Appendix 45.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter
References
46 3D-Geolocalization by Magnetometry Using UAS: A Novel Method for Buried Pipeline Mapping and Bending Strain Assessment
Mehdi M. LAICHOUBI, Hamza KELLA BENNANI, Ludovic Berthelot, Vincent BENET, Miaohang HU, Michel PINET, and Samir TAKILLAH
46.1 Introduction
46.2 3D-Localisation and Depth of Cover Assessment
46.3 Materials and Methods
46.4 Case Study and Operating Procedure
46.5 Performance of the 3D-Localisation
46.6 Generalized Study on Eight GRTgaz Pipeline Spots
46.7 Bending Strain Assessment
46.8 Drone-Based Bending Strain (DBBS) Case Study
46.9 Conclusion
References
47 Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring
Nageswara Lalam and Ruishu Wright
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS)
47.3 Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)
47.4 Distributed Chemical Sensing for Corrosion and Corrosivity Monitoring
47.5 Challenges and Opportunities
47.6 Conclusion
References
48 Direct Assessment
John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski
48.1 Introduction
48.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA)
48.2.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.2.2 Strengths
48.2.3 Limitations
48.2.4 Status of Standard
48.2.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.2.6 Where ECDA Technique Is Headed
48.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA)
48.3.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.3.2 Strengths
48.3.3 Limitations
48.3.4 Status of Standard
48.3.5 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.3.6 Where SCCDA Technique Is Headed
48.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA)
48.4.1 Overview of Technique/Standard
48.4.2 Dry Gas ICDA
48.4.3 Wet Gas ICDA
48.4.4 Liquid Petroleum ICDA
48.4.5 Multiphase Flow ICDA
48.4.6 Strengths
48.4.7 Limitations
48.4.8 Status of Standards
48.4.9 Context of Technique/Standard in Integrity Management
48.4.10 Where ICCA Technique Is Headed
References
49 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
Daniel E. Powell
49.1 Introduction-Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes
49.1.1 Corrosion-A Definition
49.1.2 Corrosion and Use of Coupons and ER Probes as Integrity Management Tools
49.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion Probes
49.2.1 Metal Coupons
49.2.2 Electrical Resistance Probes
49.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within Pipelines
49.3.1 Placement of the Corrosion Monitoring Point on a Pipeline
49.3.2 Orientation of the Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within a Pipeline
49.4 Monitoring Results "Drive" Chemical Treatment and Maintenance Pigging Programs
49.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal Corrosion Monitoring Techniques
49.5.1 Precision of UT, RT, or MFL Nondestructive Inspection Techniques
49.5.2 Typical Exposure Periods for Coupons or ER Probes to Detect Active Corrosion
49.5.3 Relative Time for Coupons, ER Probes, or Inspection Techniques to Detect Active Corrosion
49.6 Seek Consistency between Internal Corrosion Monitoring and NDT Results - Confirm Trends
49.7 Look for Consistency: Fluid Sample Analysis Should Complement and Verify Monitoring Results
49.7.1 Identify Potential Sample Collection Points Nearby and on Same Production Stream
49.7.2 Sample Analysis Variables Commonly Assessed
49.8 Summary
49.9 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms from NACE 3T199 (c) NACE International 2012
References
50 In-Line Inspection (ILI) ("Intelligent Pigging")
Neb I. Uzelac
50.1 Introduction
50.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management
50.3 Running ILI Tools
50.3.1 Tool Type Selection
50.3.2 Making Sure the Tool Fits the Pipeline
50.3.3 Conducting the Survey
50.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose
50.4.1 Geometry (Deformation) Tools
50.4.2 Mapping/GPS Tools
50.4.3 Metal Loss Tools
50.4.4 Crack Detection
50.4.5 Other
50.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification
50.6 Integrating ILI Data
Appendix 50.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire (Nonmandatory)
References
Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content
51 Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
Konrad Reber
51.1 The Inspection Challenge in Offshore Pipelines
51.2 Internal Inspection of Offshore Pipelines
51.3 External Inspection Methods for Subsea Pipelines
51.3.1 Deployment of External Inspection Tool
51.3.2 Examples of External Inspection Devices
51.4 Inspection of Risers
51.5 Conclusions
References
52 Tethered Inspection of Riser System for Wall Thickness and Cracks
A. Enters, T.-S. Kristiansen, and U. Schneider
52.1 Introduction
52.2 Tethered Tool Principle
52.3 Case Study: 10-Inch Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks
52.4 The Reinspection Project
52.5 Summary and Benefits
Reference
53 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection
KONRAD REBER
53.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing
53.1.1 Introduction
53.1.2 How Eddy Current Testing (ECT) Works
53.1.3 Limitations for Pipeline Inspection
53.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing
53.2.1 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing (RFEC)
53.2.2 Pulsed Eddy Current (PEC) Testing
53.2.3 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (SLOFEC (TM), MEC (TM), Magcontrol (TM))
53.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection
53.3.1 Standard EC Applications
53.3.2 Remote Field and Low Frequency Testing
53.3.3 Pulsed Eddy Current Applications
53.3.4 Magnetic Eddy Current Testing (MEC (TM), SLOFEC (TM))
References
54 Unpiggable Pipelines
Tom Steinvoorte
54.1 Introduction
54.1.1 What Is an Unpiggable Pipeline?
54.1.2 The Main Challenges
54.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach
54.2.1 Pipeline Modification
54.2.2 Cable-Operated Inspection
54.2.3 Modification of Existing Tools
54.2.4 Self-Propelled Inspection
54.2.5 Selection Process
54.3 Free-Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections
54.3.1 Bidirectional Inspection
54.3.2 ILI Tools for Launch Valve Operation
54.3.3 Low-Pressure Inspection of Gas Pipelines
54.3.4 Multi-Diameter Inspection
54.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions
54.4.1 UT-Based Crawlers
54.4.2 MFL-Based Crawlers
54.4.3 Others
References
Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information
55 In-The-Ditch Pipeline Inspection
Greg Zinter
55.1 Overview
55.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines
55.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program
55.3.1 Safety
55.3.2 Verification and Advancement of Technology
55.4 Pipeline Coatings
55.4.1 Asphalt or Coal Tar Enamel
55.4.2 Tape Wrap
55.4.3 Fusion Bonded Epoxy (FBE)
55.5 Types of Anomalies
55.5.1 Introduction
55.5.2 Volumetric
55.5.3 Planar
55.5.4 Geometric
55.6 NDE Measurement Technologies
55.6.1 Visual Assessment
55.6.2 Manual Measurement
55.6.3 Magnetic Particle Inspection
55.6.4 Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)
55.6.5 Laser Profilometry
55.7 Excavation Package
55.8 Data Collection
55.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment
55.10 Data Management
55.10.1 Quality Control
55.10.2 Reporting
55.11 Recent Technological Developments
55.11.1 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT)
55.11.2 Structured Light
55.11.3 Ultrasonic
55.11.4 Eddy Current
55.12 Summary
Acknowledgments
Reference
Bibliography
56 Flaw Assessment
Ted L. Anderson
56.1 Overview
56.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental?
56.1.2 Material Properties for Flaw Assessment
56.1.3 Effect of Notch Acuity
56.2 Assessing Metal Loss
56.3 Crack Assessment
56.3.1 The Log-Secant Model for Longitudinal Cracks
56.3.2 The Failure Assessment Diagram (FAD)
56.3.3 Pressure Cycle Fatigue Analysis
56.4 Dents
References
57 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities
Greg Szuch, Mike Reed, and Keith Leewis
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Elements of a F-IMP
57.2.1 Scope of the Program
57.2.2 Goals of the Program
57.2.3 Threat Identification/Management
57.2.4 Risk Assessment/Management
57.2.5 Monitoring Inspections and Integrity Assessments
57.2.6 Quality Control
57.2.7 Communications
57.3 Building a Facility Integrity Plan
57.3.1 Where to Start?
57.3.2 Continuous Improvement
57.4 Final Thoughts
References
Bibliography: Essential Reading
58 Pipeline Geohazard Detection Using Satellite InSAR
Murray Down and Jon Leighton
58.1 Introduction: Why InSAR for Pipelines
58.2 Satelllite InSAR Simplified
58.2.1 Line of Sight
58.2.2 Imaging Perspectives
58.2.3 Single-Look vs Dual-Look
58.2.4 Geometric Distortion
58.2.5 Coherence
58.2.6 Permafrost
58.3 Specifying InSAR Requirements
58.3.1 Data
58.3.2 Historical Analysis
Bibliography
59 Integrity Management of Pipelines with Cracking
Michael Palmer
59.1 Introduction
59.2 What Are Cracks and How Do We Find Them?
59.2.1 Key Learning Points
59.3 Integrity Assessment of Cracks
59.3.1 Assessment Inputs
59.3.2 Assessment Methods
59.3.3 Crack Growth
59.3.4 Key Learning Points
59.4 What Can Be Done to Manage the Integrity of a Pipeline with Cracks?
59.4.1 Understanding the Threat
59.4.2 Integrity Management Tools
59.4.3 Long-Term Integrity Management
59.4.4 Key Learning Points
References
PART VIII MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT, REUSE, AND ABANDONMENT
60 Hydrogen and the Energy Transition
Neil Gallon and Adrian Horsley
60.1 Introduction
60.1.1 Colorful Hydrogen
60.1.2 Current Hydrogen Demand
60.1.3 The Future of Hydrogen
60.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transport
60.3 Designing or Repurposing a Hydrogen Pipeline
60.3.1 Materials of Construction
60.3.2 Design Pressure
60.3.3 Construction Welding
60.3.4 Repurposing of Pipelines to Hydrogen
60.4 Differences in the Integrity Management Approach between Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipelines
60.4.1 Probability of Failure
60.4.2 Consequence
60.4.3 Implications for Integrity Management in Hydrogen
References
61 Pipeline Cleaning
Randy L. Roberts
61.1 Introduction
61.2 Contaminates
61.3 Progressive Pigging
61.4 Pig Types
61.4.1 Poly Foam
61.4.2 Unibody
61.4.3 Steel Mandrel
61.4.4 Polyurethanes
61.5 Durometer
61.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning
61.7 On-Line or Off-Line
61.8 Cleaning a Pipeline
61.8.1 Typical Pigging Procedures
61.8.2 Pipeline Cleaners and Diluents
61.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be?
61.9.1 Single Diameter Pipelines
61.9.2 Multi-Diameter Pipelines
61.10 Summary
References
62 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure
Brian N. Leis
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Background
62.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline Construction
62.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for "Older" Pipelines
62.4.1 System Expansion and Construction Era
62.4.2 Qualitative Assessment of Construction Era and Incident Frequency
62.4.3 Quantitative Assessment of Construction Era and Incident Frequency
62.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, and Regulations
62.5.1 Pipeline Codes and Standards
62.5.2 Pipeline Regulations
62.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines
62.6.1 "Early" Construction Practices
62.6.2 "Vintage" Construction Practices-An Era of Change
62.6.3 Summary and a Brief Look Forward at the "Modern" Construction Era
62.7 Management Approach and Challenges
62.7.1 Threat Identification and Assessment
62.7.2 Inspection and Condition Monitoring
62.7.3 Life-Cycle Management
62.8 Closure
Acknowledgments
References
63 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves
William A. Bruce, Melissa Gould, and John Kiefner
63.1 Introduction
63.2 Background
63.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves
63.3.1 Type A Sleeves (Reinforcing)
63.3.2 Type B Sleeves (Pressure Containing)
63.3.3 Installation and Inspection of Full-Encirclement Sleeves
63.3.4 Defect Repair Using Composite Materials
63.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced Composite Repairs
63.4.1 Applicability to Various Defect Types
63.4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
63.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline
63.5.1 Primary Concerns
63.5.2 Preventing Burnthrough
63.5.3 Preventing Hydrogen Cracking
63.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
64 Pipeline Repair
Robert Smyth and David Futch
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Background
64.3 Defect Identification
64.4 Safety
64.5 Protocols
64.6 Recoat
64.7 Pipe Replacement
64.8 Grinding/Sanding
64.9 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves, Type A and B
64.10 Epoxy-Filled Sleeves
64.11 Steel Compression Sleeves
64.12 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves
64.12.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair
64.13 Thin Sheet Steel Coil Wrap
64.14 Hot Tapping
64.15 Direct Deposition Welding
64.16 Mechanical Clamps
64.17 Temporary Repairs
64.18 Applicability to Various Defect Types
References
65 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup
Merv Fingas
65.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview
65.1.1 How Often Do Spills Occur?
65.1.2 Pipelines
65.2 Response to Oil Spills
65.2.1 Oil Spill Contingency Plans
65.2.2 Activation of Contingency Plans
65.2.3 Training
65.2.4 Supporting Studies and Sensitivity Mapping
65.2.5 Oil Spill Cooperatives
65.2.6 The Effectiveness of Cleanup
65.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties
65.3.1 The Composition of Oil
65.3.2 Properties of Oil
65.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment
65.4.1 An Overview of Weathering
65.4.2 Evaporation
65.4.3 Emulsification and Water Uptake
65.4.4 Biodegradation
65.4.5 Spreading
65.4.6 Movement of Oil Slicks on Water
65.4.7 Sinking and Over Washing
65.4.8 Spill Modeling
65.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills
65.5.1 Sampling and Laboratory Analysis
65.5.2 Detection and Surveillance
65.6 Containment on Water
65.6.1 Types of Booms and Their Construction
65.6.2 Uses of Booms
65.6.3 Boom Failures
65.6.4 Sorbent Booms and Barriers
65.7 Oil Recovery on Water
65.7.1 Skimmers
65.7.2 Sorbents
65.7.3 Manual Recovery
65.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal
65.8.1 Temporary Storage
65.8.2 Pumps
65.8.3 Vacuum Systems
65.8.4 Recovery from the Water Subsurface
65.8.5 Separation
65.8.6 Decontamination
65.8.7 Disposal
65.9 Spill-Treating Agents
65.10 In Situ Burning
65.10.1 Advantages
65.10.2 Disadvantages
65.10.3 Ignition and What Will Burn
65.10.4 Burn Efficiency and Rates
65.10.5 Use of Containment
65.10.6 Emissions from Burning Oil
65.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration
65.11.1 Behavior of Oil on Shorelines
65.11.2 Types of Shorelines
65.11.3 Shoreline Cleanup Assessment Technique (SCAT)
65.11.4 Cleanup Methods
65.11.5 Recommended Cleanup Methods
65.12 Oil Spills on Land
65.12.1 Behavior of Oil on Land
65.12.2 Movement of Oil on Land Surfaces
65.12.3 Habitats/Ecosystems
65.12.4 Cleanup of Surface Spills
65.12.5 Natural Recovery
65.12.6 Removal of Excess Oil
65.12.7 Other Cleanup Methods
65.12.8 Cleanup of Subsurface Spills
References
66 Pipeline Abandonment
Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes
66.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment?
66.2 Abandonment Planning
66.2.1 Removal or Abandon in Place
66.2.2 Consultation
66.2.3 Abandonment Plan Outline
66.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities
66.3.1 Contamination Remediation
66.3.2 Pipeline Cleaning
66.3.3 Removal of Facilities and Apparatus
66.3.4 Water Bodies
66.3.5 Transportation and Utility Crossings
66.3.6 Right-of-Way Restoration
66.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues
66.4.1 Ground Subsidence
66.4.2 Pipe Deterioration and Collapse
66.4.3 Pipe Exposure
66.4.4 Water Conduit Effect
66.4.5 Slope Stability
66.5 Post-Abandonment Care
66.5.1 Monitoring and Maintenance
66.5.2 Land Use Changes
66.5.3 Liability
66.5.4 Financial Resources
References
PART IX RISK MANAGEMENT
67 Risk Management of Pipelines
Lynne C. Kaley
67.1 Overview
67.1.1 Risk-Based Inspection for Pipelines
67.1.2 Scope
67.1.3 Risk Analysis
67.1.4 The RBI Approach
67.1.5 Risk Reduction and Inspection Planning
67.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches
67.2.1 API Industry Standards for RBI
67.2.2 Basic Risk Categories
67.2.3 Alternative RBI Approaches
67.2.4 Qualitative Approaches to RBI
67.2.5 Quantitative RBI Analysis
67.3 Development of Inspection Programs
67.3.1 Introduction
67.3.2 Inspection Techniques and Effectiveness
67.3.3 Damage Types
67.3.4 Probability of Detection
67.3.5 Reducing Risk through Inspection
67.4 Putting RBI into Practice
67.4.1 A Continuum of Approach
67.4.2 Qualitative versus Quantitative Examples
67.4.3 Qualitative Example
67.4.4 Quantitative Example
67.4.5 Optimizing the Inspection Program
67.4.6 Example Problem Conclusions
67.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies
67.5.1 Summary
67.5.2 Ten Criteria for Selecting the Most Appropriate Level of RBI
67.5.3 Justifying Costs
References
Bibliography
68 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management with Lessons Learned
Binder Singh and Ben Poblete
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions
68.3 Life Cycle
68.3.1 Fitness for Corrosion Service
68.3.2 Conventional and Performance-Based Corrosion Management
68.3.3 Corrosion Risk-Based Performance Goals
68.3.4 Inherent Safe Design (ISD) and Project Phases of a Production Development
68.3.5 Link between ISD and Corrosion Management
68.3.6 Risk-Based Inspection and Monitoring
68.3.7 Life Extension
68.4 Case Histories
68.4.1 Fit-for-Purpose Solutions
68.4.2 Methods and Techniques of Failure Analysis
68.4.3 Failure Mechanisms and Excursions outside the Design Envelope
68.4.4 Corrosion and Integrity Risk
68.4.5 Corrosion Failures
68.4.6 Localized Corrosion Mechanisms in the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry
68.4.7 Pictorial Gallery of Localized Corrosion and Cracking
68.4.8 Failure Analysis Check Sheet Listing
68.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations
68.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring Methodologies
68.6.1 Risk and Reliability in the Corrosion Context
68.6.2 Safety Management Systems and Corrosion Risk
68.6.3 Formal or Structured Hazard or Risk Assessment
68.7 Lessons Learned, Recommendations, and Future Strategies
68.7.1 Lessons Learned - Update and Discussion
68.7.2 Recommendations and Future Strategies
Caveat and Acknowledgments
References
Bibliography
69 Pipeline Operational Intrusions
Errol R. A. Eccles
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Operations Management and Risk
69.3 Risk Assessment
69.3.1 High-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.2 Medium-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.3 Lower-Level Risk Assessment
69.3.4 Hazards and Controls
69.3.5 Risk Matrix
69.4 Operations Management
69.4.1 Standard Operating Procedures
69.4.2 Checklist
69.4.3 Shift Log
69.4.4 Shift Handover
69.5 Process Safety Management
69.5.1 Mechanical Integrity
69.6 Work Management
69.6.1 Planning
69.6.2 Scheduling and Prioritization
69.6.3 Risk Assessment for Work
69.6.4 Higher-Risk Work, Permitted Work
69.6.5 As Low as Reasonably Practicable (ALARP)
69.6.6 Graphics
69.6.7 Icons
69.6.8 Lessons Learned
69.6.9 Information Technology
69.7 Emergency and Incident Management
69.8 Management of Change (MOC)
69.9 Competence
69.10 Risk Management
69.10.1 Safety Risk
69.10.2 Cumulative Risk
69.10.3 Risk Mitigation
69.10.4 Barrier Management
69.10.5 Example of Risks
69.11 Information Technology (IT)
69.11.1 Security and Visibility
69.11.2 Digital Risk Assessment
69.11.3 Lessons Learned
69.11.4 Searchability
69.11.5 Reporting
69.11.6 History
69.11.7 Printing
69.12 Summary
69.13 Terms and Definitions
Acknowledgments
References
PART X CASE HISTORIES
70 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking on Onshore Pipelines Driven by Cathodic Protection - Case Studies
Pablo Cazenave, Katina Jimenez, Ming Gao, and Ravi Krishnamurthy
70.1 Background
70.2 Investigation of a Gas Transmission Pipeline Failure in Argentina
70.2.1 Reconstruction of the Failed Pipes and Data Gathering
70.2.2 Environmental and Operational Assessment
70.2.3 Chemical and Mechanical Testing
70.2.4 Fractographic and Metallographic Evaluations
70.3 Mechanisms of Cracking
70.3.1 HAC and HIC
70.3.2 Comparison Between HAC and NNpHSCC Mechanisms
70.3.3 Hydrogen Evolution: Cathodic Protection vs Free Corrosion
70.3.4 Cathodic Protection and pH of the Electrolyte
70.3.5 Coating Disbondment and Cathodic Protection Shielding
70.3.6 Crack dormancy/blunting
70.4 Similar Cases in Europe, North America, and the Literature
70.4.1 Natural Gas Pipeline in Europe
70.4.2 Refined Products Pipeline in the USA
70.4.3 Similar Cases in Literature
70.5 Effects of CP-related Hydrogen on Other Types of Cracking
70.6 Mitigation strategies
70.7 Closing remarks
References
71 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study-Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions
Arnold L. Lewis II
71.1 Introduction
71.1.1 Statement of the Buckle/Collapse Problem
71.1.2 Observations
71.2 Study Conclusions
71.2.1 Conclusions for Sources of Hydrogen in an Annulus of a Pipeline Repair Sleeve
71.2.2 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from inside the Pipeline into an Annulus
71.2.3 Factors Affecting Hydrogen Permeation from outside the Repair Sleeve into an Annulus
71.2.4 Factors Affecting the Rate of Annulus Pressure Increase
71.2.5 Factors Affecting the Time Required for a Buckle/Collapse Failure
71.2.6 Main Sources and Considerations for Hydrogen Gas Trapped in the Annulus of a Pipeline Repair Sleeve
71.2.7 Solutions to Mitigate Buckle/Collapse Failures under Pipeline Repair Sleeves
71.3 Summary
Acknowledgment
References
72 Shell FLAGS Inspection Case Study
J. Nonemaker, T. Steinvoorte, and R. Subramanian
72.1 Introduction
72.2 The Challenge
72.3 The Solution
72.4 Field Work
72.5 Result
73 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multi-Diameter Pipelines - A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project
Luciano Baptista, Tom Steinvoorte, Stephan Harmsen, and Carlos Enrique Sabido
73.1 Introduction
73.2 Background
73.3 Challenge
73.4 Solution
73.5 Scope
73.6 Tool Design
73.6.1 Multi-Diameter Cleaning Tools
73.6.2 Key Design Features of the ILI Tool
73.7 Testing
73.7.1 Bypass Tests
73.7.2 Pump Tests
73.7.3 Pull Tests
73.8 Gauging and Inspection Runs
73.8.1 Key Challenges
73.8.2 Cleaning, Gauging, and Inspecting Route 2.1
73.9 Benefit
References
GLOSSARY
Part 1: Abbreviations
Part 2: Selected Terms
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