Precision Measurement of Microwave Thermal Noise
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Precision Measurement of Microwave Thermal Noise
Randa, James
John Wiley & Sons Inc
11/2022
176
Dura
Inglês
9781119910091
15 a 20 dias
666
Descrição não disponível.
Preface xi
1 Background 1
1.1 Nyquist's Theorem and Noise Temperature 1
1.1.1 Nyquist's Theorem 1
1.1.2 Limits and Numbers 2
1.1.3 Definition of Noise Temperature 4
1.1.4 Excess Noise Ratio and T 0 5
1.2 Microwave Networks 5
1.2.1 Notation 5
1.2.2 Noise Correlation Matrix and Bosma's Theorem 6
1.2.3 Power Ratios 7
1.2.4 Noise-Temperature Translation Through a Passive Device 9
References 10
2 Noise-Temperature Standards 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Ambient Standards 12
2.3 Hot (Oven) Standards 13
2.4 Cryogenic Standards 13
2.4.1 Coaxial Standards 13
2.4.2 Waveguide Standards 15
2.5 Other Standards and Noise Sources 18
2.5.1 Tunable Primary Standards 18
2.5.2 "Equivalent Hot Standard" Based on RF Power 18
2.5.3 Secondary Standards 19
2.5.4 Synthetic Primary Standards 19
References 20
3 Noise-Temperature Measurement 23
3.1 Background 23
3.2 Total-Power Radiometer 24
3.2.1 Idealized Case 24
3.2.2 Nonideal Case 25
3.2.3 Radiometer Equation for Isolated Total-Power Radiometer 27
3.2.4 Total-Power Radiometer Design 29
3.2.5 Radiometer Testing 32
3.3 Total-Power Radiometer Uncertainties 34
3.3.1 Type-A Uncertainties 34
3.3.2 Type-B Uncertainties 36
3.3.3 Sample Results 40
3.4 Other Radiometer Designs 40
3.4.1 Switching or Dicke Radiometer 40
3.4.2 Digital Radiometer 41
3.5 Measurements through Adapters 42
3.6 Traceability and Inter-laboratory Comparisons 43
References 44
4 Amplifier Noise 47
4.1 Noise Figure, Effective Input Noise Temperature 47
4.2 Noise-Temperature Definition Revisited 48
4.3 Noise Figure Measurement, Simple Case 49
4.4 Definition of Noise Parameters 50
4.4.1 Circuit Treatment of Noisy Amplifier 50
4.4.2 Wave Representation of Noise Parameters 52
4.5 Measurement of Noise Parameters 55
4.5.1 General Measurement Setup 55
4.5.2 Fit to Noise-Figure Parameterization 59
4.5.3 Fit to Noise-Temperature or Power Parameterization 60
4.5.4 Possible Variations When Using the Wave Formulation 62
4.5.5 Choice of Input Terminations 63
4.5.6 Commercial Systems, Source-Pull Measurements 66
4.5.7 Frequency-Variation Method 66
4.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Noise-Parameter Measurements 67
4.6.1 Simple Considerations 67
4.6.2 Full Analysis 70
4.6.3 Input Uncertainties 72
4.6.4 General Features and Sample Results 74
4.7 Simulations and Strategies 77
References 79
5 On-Wafer Noise Measurements 83
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 On-Wafer Microwave Formalism 84
5.2.1 Traveling Waves vs. Pseudo Waves 84
5.2.2 On-Wafer Reference Planes 84
5.3 Noise-Temperature Measurements 85
5.4 On-Wafer Noise-Parameter Measurements 88
5.4.1 General 88
5.4.2 Radiometer-Based Systems 90
5.4.3 Commercial Systems and Reference-Plane Considerations 93
5.4.4 "Enhanced" or Model-Assisted Measurements 95
5.5 Uncertainties 101
5.5.1 Differences from Packaged Amplifiers 101
5.5.2 General Features and Properties 103
5.5.3 Measurement Strategies 104
References 105
6 Noise-Parameter Checks and Verification 109
6.1 Measurement of Passive or Previously Measured Devices 109
6.2 Physical Bounds and Model Predictions 111
6.3 Tandem or Hybrid Measurements 112
References 118
7 Cryogenic Amplifiers 121
7.1 Background 121
7.1.1 Introduction 121
7.1.2 Vacuum-Fluctuation Contribution 121
7.2 Measurement of the Matched Noise Figure 123
7.2.1 Cold-Attenuator Method 123
7.2.2 Internal Hot-Cold Method 124
7.2.3 Full-Characterization Measurements 125
7.3 Noise-Parameter Measurement 128
References 129
8 Multiport Amplifiers 133
8.1 Introduction 133
8.2 Formalism and Noise Matrix 134
8.3 Definition of Noise Figure for Multiports 136
8.4 Degradation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio 138
8.5 Three-Port Example - Differential Amplifier with Reflectionless Terminations 139
8.5.1 Motivation 139
8.5.2 Characteristic Noise Temperature, Gains, and Effective Input Noise Temperature 139
8.5.3 Noise Figure 142
8.5.4 Practical Applications 143
8.6 Four-Port Example with Reflectionless Terminations 143
References 145
9 Remote Sensing Connection 147
9.1 Introduction 147
9.2 Theory for Standard Radiometer 149
9.3 Standard-Radiometer Measurements 154
9.3.1 Determination of ? 154
9.3.2 Determination of Illumination Efficiency, ? IE 154
9.3.2.1 Measurements of a Standard Target 155
9.4 Standard-Target Design 155
9.5 Target Reflectivity Effects 156
9.5.1 Effect of Target Reflectivity 156
9.5.2 Measurement of Target Reflectivity 157
References 157
Index 159
1 Background 1
1.1 Nyquist's Theorem and Noise Temperature 1
1.1.1 Nyquist's Theorem 1
1.1.2 Limits and Numbers 2
1.1.3 Definition of Noise Temperature 4
1.1.4 Excess Noise Ratio and T 0 5
1.2 Microwave Networks 5
1.2.1 Notation 5
1.2.2 Noise Correlation Matrix and Bosma's Theorem 6
1.2.3 Power Ratios 7
1.2.4 Noise-Temperature Translation Through a Passive Device 9
References 10
2 Noise-Temperature Standards 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Ambient Standards 12
2.3 Hot (Oven) Standards 13
2.4 Cryogenic Standards 13
2.4.1 Coaxial Standards 13
2.4.2 Waveguide Standards 15
2.5 Other Standards and Noise Sources 18
2.5.1 Tunable Primary Standards 18
2.5.2 "Equivalent Hot Standard" Based on RF Power 18
2.5.3 Secondary Standards 19
2.5.4 Synthetic Primary Standards 19
References 20
3 Noise-Temperature Measurement 23
3.1 Background 23
3.2 Total-Power Radiometer 24
3.2.1 Idealized Case 24
3.2.2 Nonideal Case 25
3.2.3 Radiometer Equation for Isolated Total-Power Radiometer 27
3.2.4 Total-Power Radiometer Design 29
3.2.5 Radiometer Testing 32
3.3 Total-Power Radiometer Uncertainties 34
3.3.1 Type-A Uncertainties 34
3.3.2 Type-B Uncertainties 36
3.3.3 Sample Results 40
3.4 Other Radiometer Designs 40
3.4.1 Switching or Dicke Radiometer 40
3.4.2 Digital Radiometer 41
3.5 Measurements through Adapters 42
3.6 Traceability and Inter-laboratory Comparisons 43
References 44
4 Amplifier Noise 47
4.1 Noise Figure, Effective Input Noise Temperature 47
4.2 Noise-Temperature Definition Revisited 48
4.3 Noise Figure Measurement, Simple Case 49
4.4 Definition of Noise Parameters 50
4.4.1 Circuit Treatment of Noisy Amplifier 50
4.4.2 Wave Representation of Noise Parameters 52
4.5 Measurement of Noise Parameters 55
4.5.1 General Measurement Setup 55
4.5.2 Fit to Noise-Figure Parameterization 59
4.5.3 Fit to Noise-Temperature or Power Parameterization 60
4.5.4 Possible Variations When Using the Wave Formulation 62
4.5.5 Choice of Input Terminations 63
4.5.6 Commercial Systems, Source-Pull Measurements 66
4.5.7 Frequency-Variation Method 66
4.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Noise-Parameter Measurements 67
4.6.1 Simple Considerations 67
4.6.2 Full Analysis 70
4.6.3 Input Uncertainties 72
4.6.4 General Features and Sample Results 74
4.7 Simulations and Strategies 77
References 79
5 On-Wafer Noise Measurements 83
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 On-Wafer Microwave Formalism 84
5.2.1 Traveling Waves vs. Pseudo Waves 84
5.2.2 On-Wafer Reference Planes 84
5.3 Noise-Temperature Measurements 85
5.4 On-Wafer Noise-Parameter Measurements 88
5.4.1 General 88
5.4.2 Radiometer-Based Systems 90
5.4.3 Commercial Systems and Reference-Plane Considerations 93
5.4.4 "Enhanced" or Model-Assisted Measurements 95
5.5 Uncertainties 101
5.5.1 Differences from Packaged Amplifiers 101
5.5.2 General Features and Properties 103
5.5.3 Measurement Strategies 104
References 105
6 Noise-Parameter Checks and Verification 109
6.1 Measurement of Passive or Previously Measured Devices 109
6.2 Physical Bounds and Model Predictions 111
6.3 Tandem or Hybrid Measurements 112
References 118
7 Cryogenic Amplifiers 121
7.1 Background 121
7.1.1 Introduction 121
7.1.2 Vacuum-Fluctuation Contribution 121
7.2 Measurement of the Matched Noise Figure 123
7.2.1 Cold-Attenuator Method 123
7.2.2 Internal Hot-Cold Method 124
7.2.3 Full-Characterization Measurements 125
7.3 Noise-Parameter Measurement 128
References 129
8 Multiport Amplifiers 133
8.1 Introduction 133
8.2 Formalism and Noise Matrix 134
8.3 Definition of Noise Figure for Multiports 136
8.4 Degradation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio 138
8.5 Three-Port Example - Differential Amplifier with Reflectionless Terminations 139
8.5.1 Motivation 139
8.5.2 Characteristic Noise Temperature, Gains, and Effective Input Noise Temperature 139
8.5.3 Noise Figure 142
8.5.4 Practical Applications 143
8.6 Four-Port Example with Reflectionless Terminations 143
References 145
9 Remote Sensing Connection 147
9.1 Introduction 147
9.2 Theory for Standard Radiometer 149
9.3 Standard-Radiometer Measurements 154
9.3.1 Determination of ? 154
9.3.2 Determination of Illumination Efficiency, ? IE 154
9.3.2.1 Measurements of a Standard Target 155
9.4 Standard-Target Design 155
9.5 Target Reflectivity Effects 156
9.5.1 Effect of Target Reflectivity 156
9.5.2 Measurement of Target Reflectivity 157
References 157
Index 159
Este título pertence ao(s) assunto(s) indicados(s). Para ver outros títulos clique no assunto desejado.
microwave noise; transistor noise; amplifier noise; noise measurement; uncertainty analysis; noise temperature; noise parameters; measurement methods for electronic thermal noise; Noise-temperature standards; ambient standards
Preface xi
1 Background 1
1.1 Nyquist's Theorem and Noise Temperature 1
1.1.1 Nyquist's Theorem 1
1.1.2 Limits and Numbers 2
1.1.3 Definition of Noise Temperature 4
1.1.4 Excess Noise Ratio and T 0 5
1.2 Microwave Networks 5
1.2.1 Notation 5
1.2.2 Noise Correlation Matrix and Bosma's Theorem 6
1.2.3 Power Ratios 7
1.2.4 Noise-Temperature Translation Through a Passive Device 9
References 10
2 Noise-Temperature Standards 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Ambient Standards 12
2.3 Hot (Oven) Standards 13
2.4 Cryogenic Standards 13
2.4.1 Coaxial Standards 13
2.4.2 Waveguide Standards 15
2.5 Other Standards and Noise Sources 18
2.5.1 Tunable Primary Standards 18
2.5.2 "Equivalent Hot Standard" Based on RF Power 18
2.5.3 Secondary Standards 19
2.5.4 Synthetic Primary Standards 19
References 20
3 Noise-Temperature Measurement 23
3.1 Background 23
3.2 Total-Power Radiometer 24
3.2.1 Idealized Case 24
3.2.2 Nonideal Case 25
3.2.3 Radiometer Equation for Isolated Total-Power Radiometer 27
3.2.4 Total-Power Radiometer Design 29
3.2.5 Radiometer Testing 32
3.3 Total-Power Radiometer Uncertainties 34
3.3.1 Type-A Uncertainties 34
3.3.2 Type-B Uncertainties 36
3.3.3 Sample Results 40
3.4 Other Radiometer Designs 40
3.4.1 Switching or Dicke Radiometer 40
3.4.2 Digital Radiometer 41
3.5 Measurements through Adapters 42
3.6 Traceability and Inter-laboratory Comparisons 43
References 44
4 Amplifier Noise 47
4.1 Noise Figure, Effective Input Noise Temperature 47
4.2 Noise-Temperature Definition Revisited 48
4.3 Noise Figure Measurement, Simple Case 49
4.4 Definition of Noise Parameters 50
4.4.1 Circuit Treatment of Noisy Amplifier 50
4.4.2 Wave Representation of Noise Parameters 52
4.5 Measurement of Noise Parameters 55
4.5.1 General Measurement Setup 55
4.5.2 Fit to Noise-Figure Parameterization 59
4.5.3 Fit to Noise-Temperature or Power Parameterization 60
4.5.4 Possible Variations When Using the Wave Formulation 62
4.5.5 Choice of Input Terminations 63
4.5.6 Commercial Systems, Source-Pull Measurements 66
4.5.7 Frequency-Variation Method 66
4.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Noise-Parameter Measurements 67
4.6.1 Simple Considerations 67
4.6.2 Full Analysis 70
4.6.3 Input Uncertainties 72
4.6.4 General Features and Sample Results 74
4.7 Simulations and Strategies 77
References 79
5 On-Wafer Noise Measurements 83
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 On-Wafer Microwave Formalism 84
5.2.1 Traveling Waves vs. Pseudo Waves 84
5.2.2 On-Wafer Reference Planes 84
5.3 Noise-Temperature Measurements 85
5.4 On-Wafer Noise-Parameter Measurements 88
5.4.1 General 88
5.4.2 Radiometer-Based Systems 90
5.4.3 Commercial Systems and Reference-Plane Considerations 93
5.4.4 "Enhanced" or Model-Assisted Measurements 95
5.5 Uncertainties 101
5.5.1 Differences from Packaged Amplifiers 101
5.5.2 General Features and Properties 103
5.5.3 Measurement Strategies 104
References 105
6 Noise-Parameter Checks and Verification 109
6.1 Measurement of Passive or Previously Measured Devices 109
6.2 Physical Bounds and Model Predictions 111
6.3 Tandem or Hybrid Measurements 112
References 118
7 Cryogenic Amplifiers 121
7.1 Background 121
7.1.1 Introduction 121
7.1.2 Vacuum-Fluctuation Contribution 121
7.2 Measurement of the Matched Noise Figure 123
7.2.1 Cold-Attenuator Method 123
7.2.2 Internal Hot-Cold Method 124
7.2.3 Full-Characterization Measurements 125
7.3 Noise-Parameter Measurement 128
References 129
8 Multiport Amplifiers 133
8.1 Introduction 133
8.2 Formalism and Noise Matrix 134
8.3 Definition of Noise Figure for Multiports 136
8.4 Degradation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio 138
8.5 Three-Port Example - Differential Amplifier with Reflectionless Terminations 139
8.5.1 Motivation 139
8.5.2 Characteristic Noise Temperature, Gains, and Effective Input Noise Temperature 139
8.5.3 Noise Figure 142
8.5.4 Practical Applications 143
8.6 Four-Port Example with Reflectionless Terminations 143
References 145
9 Remote Sensing Connection 147
9.1 Introduction 147
9.2 Theory for Standard Radiometer 149
9.3 Standard-Radiometer Measurements 154
9.3.1 Determination of ? 154
9.3.2 Determination of Illumination Efficiency, ? IE 154
9.3.2.1 Measurements of a Standard Target 155
9.4 Standard-Target Design 155
9.5 Target Reflectivity Effects 156
9.5.1 Effect of Target Reflectivity 156
9.5.2 Measurement of Target Reflectivity 157
References 157
Index 159
1 Background 1
1.1 Nyquist's Theorem and Noise Temperature 1
1.1.1 Nyquist's Theorem 1
1.1.2 Limits and Numbers 2
1.1.3 Definition of Noise Temperature 4
1.1.4 Excess Noise Ratio and T 0 5
1.2 Microwave Networks 5
1.2.1 Notation 5
1.2.2 Noise Correlation Matrix and Bosma's Theorem 6
1.2.3 Power Ratios 7
1.2.4 Noise-Temperature Translation Through a Passive Device 9
References 10
2 Noise-Temperature Standards 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Ambient Standards 12
2.3 Hot (Oven) Standards 13
2.4 Cryogenic Standards 13
2.4.1 Coaxial Standards 13
2.4.2 Waveguide Standards 15
2.5 Other Standards and Noise Sources 18
2.5.1 Tunable Primary Standards 18
2.5.2 "Equivalent Hot Standard" Based on RF Power 18
2.5.3 Secondary Standards 19
2.5.4 Synthetic Primary Standards 19
References 20
3 Noise-Temperature Measurement 23
3.1 Background 23
3.2 Total-Power Radiometer 24
3.2.1 Idealized Case 24
3.2.2 Nonideal Case 25
3.2.3 Radiometer Equation for Isolated Total-Power Radiometer 27
3.2.4 Total-Power Radiometer Design 29
3.2.5 Radiometer Testing 32
3.3 Total-Power Radiometer Uncertainties 34
3.3.1 Type-A Uncertainties 34
3.3.2 Type-B Uncertainties 36
3.3.3 Sample Results 40
3.4 Other Radiometer Designs 40
3.4.1 Switching or Dicke Radiometer 40
3.4.2 Digital Radiometer 41
3.5 Measurements through Adapters 42
3.6 Traceability and Inter-laboratory Comparisons 43
References 44
4 Amplifier Noise 47
4.1 Noise Figure, Effective Input Noise Temperature 47
4.2 Noise-Temperature Definition Revisited 48
4.3 Noise Figure Measurement, Simple Case 49
4.4 Definition of Noise Parameters 50
4.4.1 Circuit Treatment of Noisy Amplifier 50
4.4.2 Wave Representation of Noise Parameters 52
4.5 Measurement of Noise Parameters 55
4.5.1 General Measurement Setup 55
4.5.2 Fit to Noise-Figure Parameterization 59
4.5.3 Fit to Noise-Temperature or Power Parameterization 60
4.5.4 Possible Variations When Using the Wave Formulation 62
4.5.5 Choice of Input Terminations 63
4.5.6 Commercial Systems, Source-Pull Measurements 66
4.5.7 Frequency-Variation Method 66
4.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Noise-Parameter Measurements 67
4.6.1 Simple Considerations 67
4.6.2 Full Analysis 70
4.6.3 Input Uncertainties 72
4.6.4 General Features and Sample Results 74
4.7 Simulations and Strategies 77
References 79
5 On-Wafer Noise Measurements 83
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 On-Wafer Microwave Formalism 84
5.2.1 Traveling Waves vs. Pseudo Waves 84
5.2.2 On-Wafer Reference Planes 84
5.3 Noise-Temperature Measurements 85
5.4 On-Wafer Noise-Parameter Measurements 88
5.4.1 General 88
5.4.2 Radiometer-Based Systems 90
5.4.3 Commercial Systems and Reference-Plane Considerations 93
5.4.4 "Enhanced" or Model-Assisted Measurements 95
5.5 Uncertainties 101
5.5.1 Differences from Packaged Amplifiers 101
5.5.2 General Features and Properties 103
5.5.3 Measurement Strategies 104
References 105
6 Noise-Parameter Checks and Verification 109
6.1 Measurement of Passive or Previously Measured Devices 109
6.2 Physical Bounds and Model Predictions 111
6.3 Tandem or Hybrid Measurements 112
References 118
7 Cryogenic Amplifiers 121
7.1 Background 121
7.1.1 Introduction 121
7.1.2 Vacuum-Fluctuation Contribution 121
7.2 Measurement of the Matched Noise Figure 123
7.2.1 Cold-Attenuator Method 123
7.2.2 Internal Hot-Cold Method 124
7.2.3 Full-Characterization Measurements 125
7.3 Noise-Parameter Measurement 128
References 129
8 Multiport Amplifiers 133
8.1 Introduction 133
8.2 Formalism and Noise Matrix 134
8.3 Definition of Noise Figure for Multiports 136
8.4 Degradation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio 138
8.5 Three-Port Example - Differential Amplifier with Reflectionless Terminations 139
8.5.1 Motivation 139
8.5.2 Characteristic Noise Temperature, Gains, and Effective Input Noise Temperature 139
8.5.3 Noise Figure 142
8.5.4 Practical Applications 143
8.6 Four-Port Example with Reflectionless Terminations 143
References 145
9 Remote Sensing Connection 147
9.1 Introduction 147
9.2 Theory for Standard Radiometer 149
9.3 Standard-Radiometer Measurements 154
9.3.1 Determination of ? 154
9.3.2 Determination of Illumination Efficiency, ? IE 154
9.3.2.1 Measurements of a Standard Target 155
9.4 Standard-Target Design 155
9.5 Target Reflectivity Effects 156
9.5.1 Effect of Target Reflectivity 156
9.5.2 Measurement of Target Reflectivity 157
References 157
Index 159
Este título pertence ao(s) assunto(s) indicados(s). Para ver outros títulos clique no assunto desejado.
