Understanding Emotions

Figures xvii Tables xxv Preface xxvii Acknowledgments xxxi Part I Perspectives on Emotions 1 1 Approaches to Understanding Emotions 3 Introduction 4 What Is an Emotion? First Ideas 5 Nineteenth-Century Founders 6 Charles Darwin: The Evolutionary Approach 6 William James: The Bodily Approach 10 Sigmund Freud: The Psychoanalytic Approach 10 Philosophical and Literary Approaches 12 Aristotle and the Ethics of Emotions 12 Rene Descartes: Philosophically Speaking 15 George Eliot: The World of the Arts 17 Brain Science Psychology Sociology and Anthropology 18 John Harlow Tania Singer: Toward a Brain Science of Emotion 19 Magda Arnold Sylvan Tomkins: New Psychological Theories 22 Erving Goffman Arlie Russell Hochschild and Lila Abu-Lughod: Emotions as Moral Dramas Involving Selves and Others 24 Empirical Inspirations for a New Science of Emotion 26 What Is an Emotion? A Framework 28 The Emotional Realm: Emotions-Moods-Dispositions 29 Episodes of Emotion 30 Moods and Sentiments 30 Emotional Disorders 30 Personality and Temperament 30 Summary 31 To Think About and Discuss 31 Further Reading 31 2 Evolution of Emotions 32 Elements of an Evolutionary Approach 33 Selection Pressures 33 Adaptation 35 Natural Design for Gene Replication 37 An Evolutionary History of Human Emotions 41 Insights from Modern Hunter-Gatherers 41 Insights from Nonhuman Primates 43 Human Ancestry 47 Evolution of Symbolic Representation and Language 49 Emotions as Bases of Human Relationships 51 Emotions That Promote Attachment 52 Emotions and Negotiation of Social Hierarchy 54 Emotions Affiliation and Friendship 54 Collective Emotion and Preference for In-Groups 55 Summary 57 To Think About and Discuss 57 Further Reading 58 3 Cultural Understandings of Emotions 59 An Island Society 60 Two Emotional Events 60 Three Principles: Emotions as Interpersonal Active and Value-based 61 Cross-cultural Approaches to Emotion 62 Identity 62 Independent and Interdependent Selves 63 Knowledge Structures 65 Values 67 The Construction of Emotions in the West 69 The Coming of Civilization to Medieval Societies 69 Has Violence Declined Over Time? 71 The Romantic Era 73 Sexual Love in the West 75 Falling in Love: Emotion as a Role 75 Women and Men: Different Cultures? 78 Integrating Evolutionary and Cultural Approaches 78 Summary 80 To Think About and Discuss 81 Further Reading 81 Part II Elements of Emotions 83 4 Communication of Emotions 85 Five Kinds of Nonverbal Behavior 88 Facial Expressions of Emotion 91 Darwin's Observations and Theoretical Analysis 91 Early Evidence of the Universality of Facial Expressions of Emotion 93 Critiques of the Ekman and Friesen Studies 95 Discovering New Facial Expressions of Emotion 96 Inference and Context in Emotion Recognition 99 Vocal Communication of Emotion 102 The Communication of Emotions with the Voice 104 Tactile Communication of Emotion 107 Four Functions of Touch 107 Communicating Emotions with Touch 108 Emotional Expression and the Coordination of Social Interaction 109 Cultural Variation in Emotional Expression 111 Cultural Variation in Expressive Behavior 111 Cultural Variation in the Interpretation of Emotional Expression 112 Communication of Emotion in Art 113 Four Hypotheses from the Idea of Romanticism 114 Aesthetic Emotions in the Natyasastra 115 Summary 117 To Think About and Discuss 118 Further Reading 118 5 Bodily Changes and Emotions 119 Early Theorizing About Emotion and Bodily Changes 120 Emotion and the Autonomic Nervous System 122 Directed Facial Action and Physiological Differentiation of Negative Emotion 123 Autonomic Response and Positive Emotion 125 Vagal Tone and Compassion 126 The Blush 126 The Chills 128 Emotion and the Neuroendocrine System 130 The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis 130 Emotion and the Immune System 132 The Inflammation Response 132 Bodily Changes and Emotional Experience 134 Representations of Emotions in the Body 135 Interoception 137 Embodiment Cognition and Social Interaction 138 Gut Feelings and Decision Making 140 Embodied Empathy 141 Summary 142 To Think About and Discuss 142 Further Reading 142 6 Appraisal Experience Regulation 143 Appraisal and Emotion 144 Historical Background and Concepts 144 Primary Appraisals Good and Bad 145 Which Is Stronger Good or Bad? 147 Secondary Appraisals 148 Discrete Approaches 148 Dimensional Approaches 149 Extending Appraisal Research: Tests of Theories and Patterns of Variation 152 A Third Phase of Appraisal: Verbal Sharing 154 Words and Concepts 155 The Emotion Lexicon 155 Conceptualization of Emotion 156 Emotion Metaphors 156 Prototypes 157 Variations in Emotion Lexicon 158 Emotional Experience 160 The Perspective That Emotions Are Discrete 161 The Perspective That Emotions Are Constructed 162 Comparing Perspectives 163 Regulation of Emotions 164 Distraction Reappraisal Suppression 165 Summary 168 To Think About and Discuss 168 Further Reading 168 7 Brain Mechanisms and Emotion 169 Historical Approaches to the Neuroscience of Emotion 170 Early Research on Brain Lesions and Stimulation 174 The Limbic System 174 Emotion Systems in the Mammalian Brain 175 A Framework from Affective Neuroscience 177 Emotion-Related Appraisals and Subcortical Processes in the Brain 177 Appraisals of Novelty and Concern Relevance: The Amygdala 178 Appraisals of Possible Rewards: The Nucleus Accumbens 180 Appraisals of Pain Threat and Harm: The Periaqueductal Gray 182 Bodily Awareness and Subjective Feeling: The Anterior Insular Cortex 183 From Conceptualization to Empathic Understanding: Cortical Processes in the Brain 184 Learning Associations Between Events and Rewards: The Orbitofrontal Cortex 184 Emotion Conceptualization: The Prefrontal Cortex 185 Emotion Regulation: Regions of the Prefrontal Cortex 188 Empathy and the Cortex 189 Social Pain and the Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Anterior Insular Cortex 190 The Search for Emotion-Specific Patterns of Brain Activation 192 Distinct Emotions Are Constructed in the Cortex 192 Emotions Engage Discrete Patterns of Brain Activation 192 Summary 195 To Think About and Discuss 195 Further Reading 195 Part III Emotions and Social Life 197 8 Development of Emotions in Childhood 199 Theories of Emotional Development 201 Emotional Expression 202 The Developmental Emergence of Emotions 202 Social Emotions: 18 Months and Beyond 206 Developments in Language and the Understanding of Other Minds 209 Recognition of Emotions 210 Facial Expressions 211 Vocal Expressions 213 Postures and Gestures 213 Multimodal Recognition of Emotions 214 Brain Mechanisms in Infants' Recognition of Emotions 216 The Negativity Bias 216 Regulation of Emotions 218 Regulatory Processes 219 Neurobiological Development of Emotion Regulation 220 Temperament 222 Biological Contributions to Temperament 224 Summary 227 To Think About and Discuss 227 Further Reading 227 9 Emotions in Social Relationships 228 Emotions Within Intimate Relationships 230 Principles of Sexual Love 231 Emotions in Marriage 234 Emotions in Friendships 237 Gratitude 238 Emotional Mimicry 239 Social Support 240 Emotions in Hierarchical Relationships 241 Emotional Displays and the Negotiation of Social Rank 242 Power and Emotion 244 Social Class and Emotion 245 Emotion and Group Dynamics 247 Group and Collective Emotions 248 Group and Collective Emotion and Between-Group Conflict 250 Infrahumanization 251 Emotional Processes That Improve Group Relations 251 Emotional Intelligence 252 Summary 252 To Think About and Discuss 253 Further Reading 253 10 Emotions and Thinking 254 Passion and Reason 255 Emotions Prioritize Thoughts Goals and Actions 256 Emotion and Mood in Economic Behavior 259 The Ultimatum Game 259 Classical Economics 259 Affect Infusion and Affect as Information 260 Styles of Processing 263 Effects of Moods and Emotions on Cognitive Functioning 264 Perceptual Effects 264 Attentional Effects 265 Effects on Remembering 266 Emotion-Related Biases in Memory 267 Eyewitness Testimony 268 Persuasion 269 Morality 269 Intuitions and Principles 269 Cooperation 272 Emotions and the Law 273 Obligations of Society 273 Dispassionate Judgments? 274 Summary 275 To Think About and Discuss 276 Further Reading 276 Part IV Emotions and the Individual 277 11 Individual Differences in Emotionality 279 Emotionality Over the Life Span 280 Continuities in Emotionality from Childhood to Adulthood 280 From Temperament to Personality 282 Individual Differences in Emotion Shape How We Construe the World 283 Age-Related Changes in Temperament and Personality 284 Propensities in Emotionality That Shape the Relational Environment 285 Emotionality Moderates Environmental Risk 286 Attachment and Emotionality 287 What Is Attachment? 287 Attachment Status and Emotional Outcomes 288 Parental Sensitivity and Shared Thinking 289 From Parent Attachment to Child Attachment 290 The Role of Environmental Risk in Children's Attachment Relationships 291 Genetic Influences on Attachment 291 Parental Behaviors Beyond Attachment 292 Biobehavioral Synchronization 292 Parental Mentalization and Reflective Capacity 292 Talk About Emotions 293 Parental Socialization of Emotion 295 Beyond Parenting: Influences of Siblings Peers and the Broader Social Context 299 Siblings 300 Peers 301 Broader Social Context 302 Programs That Optimize Emotional Development 303 Summary 306 To Think About and Discuss 307 Further Reading 307 12 Psychopathology of Emotions in Childhood 308 Emotions and Psychopathology 309 The Case of Peter 309 Conceptualizing Childhood Disorders: Categories versus Dimensions 309 How Are Emotions Involved in Children's Psychopathology? 310 Are Emotions Abnormal in Psychopathology? 311 Prevalence of Psychopathology in Childhood 312 Internalizing and Externalizing Psychopathology 312 Comorbidity Heterogeneity and the "p" Factor 313 The Relationship Between Risk Factors and Psychopathology 314 People Contexts and the Multilevel Environment 314 Risk and Resilience: The Combination of Risk and Protective Factors 315 Risk Factors 318 Biological Risk Factors 318 Proximal Risk Factors 322 Distal Risk Factors 326 Trajectories of Disorders 328 Homotypic and Heterotypic Continuity 329 Trajectories of Externalizing Problems 329 Trajectories of Internalizing Disorders 331 Interventions for Child and Adolescent Psychopathology 332 Summary 335 To Think About and Discuss 335 Further Reading 336 13 Emotional Disorders in Adulthood 337 Depression and Anxiety 338 Psychiatric Disorders: Symptoms and Prevalence 338 Psychiatric Epidemiology 338 Kinds of Depression and Anxiety 340 How Disorders Are Caused 343 Genetics 343 Environment 344 Life Events and Difficulties 346 Gene-Environment Interactions 349 Emotional Predispositions and Emotional Disorders 350 Vulnerability Factors 353 Social Support 353 Early Experience 353 Recurrence Recovery and Prolongation of Disorders 354 Recurrence 355 Recovery and Fresh Starts 356 Prolongation 356 Cognitive Biases in Anxiety and Other Emotional Disorders 357 Neurophysiology of Depression and Anxiety 358 Antidepressant Drugs 359 Beyond Depression and Anxiety 360 Psychopathic People in Society 360 Schizophrenia Emotion Expressed Emotion in Relatives 361 Psychosomatic Effects 362 Summary 363 To Think About and Discuss 363 Further Reading 363 14 A Meaningful Life 364 A Significant Event 365 Meaning in Life 365 Cooperation 366 Happiness 366 Relatedness 368 Satisfaction 369 Well-Being 370 Psychological Therapy with Others and by Oneself 372 Psychoanalysis: Unconscious Schemas of Relating 374 Rogerian Counseling: Empathetic Support 376 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Changing Emotional Life by Thought 376 Emotion-Focused Therapy: Changing Emotional Life by Emotions 377 Outcomes of Psychotherapy 378 Psychotherapy Without Therapists 381 Mindfulness Ancient and Modern 382 Consciously Making Sense of Emotions 384 Emotions in Literature 386 Emotion and Free Will 387 Emotion and Meaning in the Social World 389 Summary 390 To Think About and Discuss 390 Further Reading 390 References 391 Author Index 485 Subject Index 501

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