Precision Surveying
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portes grátis
Precision Surveying
The Principles and Geomatics Practice
Ogundare, John Olusegun
John Wiley & Sons Inc
11/2015
648
Dura
Inglês
9781119102519
15 a 20 dias
1110
Descrição não disponível.
About the Author xvii
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv
1 Precision Survey Properties and Techniques 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Basic Classification of Precision Surveys 3
1.3 Precision Geodetic Survey Techniques 8
1.4 Review of Some Safety Issues 12
2 Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors 15
2.1 Observables, Measurements and Measuring Instruments 15
2.2 Angle and Direction Measuring Instruments 16
2.3 Elevation Difference Measuring Instrument 20
2.4 Distance Measuring Instrument 24
2.5 Accuracy Limitations of Modern Survey Instruments 25
2.6 Error Properties of Measurements 28
2.7 Precision and Accuracy Indicators 29
2.8 Systematic Error and Random Error Propagation Laws 30
2.9 Statistical Test of Hypotheses: The Tools for Data Analysis 38
2.10 Need for Equipment Calibration and Testing 44
3 Standards and Specifications for Precision Surveys 47
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Standards and the Concept of Confidence Regions 51
3.3 Standards for Traditional Vertical Control Surveys 52
3.4 Standards for Horizontal Control Surveys 66
3.5 Unified Standards for Positional Accuracy 72
3.6 Map and Geospatial Data Accuracy Standards 77
3.7 Quality and Standards 82
4 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System 87
4.1 Sources of Errors in Angle Measurements 87
4.2 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Measurement Process 88
4.3 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Adjustment Process 98
4.4 Summary of Systematic Error Elimination 106
4.5 Random Error Estimation 106
4.6 Testing Procedure for Precision Theodolites 123
5 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System 133
5.1 Introduction 133
5.2 General Properties of Waves 134
5.3 Application of EM Waves to EDM 138
5.4 EDM Instrumental Errors 153
5.5 EDM External Errors 154
5.6 Random Error Propagation of EDM Distance Measurement 155
5.7 Calibration and Testing Procedures for EDM Instruments 165
6 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Elevation and Coordinate Difference Measurement Systems 189
6.1 Introduction 189
6.2 Pointing Error 190
6.3 Reading/Rod Plumbing Error 191
6.4 Leveling Error 191
6.5 Collimation, Rod Scale, and Rod Index Errors 192
6.6 Effects of Vertical Atmospheric Refraction and Earth Curvature 193
6.7 Random Error Propagation for Elevation Difference Measurements 194
6.8 Testing Procedures for Leveling Equipment 197
6.9 Calibration of Coordinate Difference Measurement System (GNSS Equipment) 203
7 Survey Design and Analysis 209
7.1 Introduction 209
7.2 Network Design 211
7.3 Solution Approaches to Design Problems 218
7.4 Network Adjustment and Analysis 223
7.5 Angular Measurement Design Example 223
7.6 Distance Measurement Design Example 226
7.7 Traverse Measurement Design Examples 227
7.8 Elevation Difference Measurement Design Example 235
8 Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems 237
8.1 Introduction 238
8.2 Coordinate System for Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems 243
8.3 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Global Navigation Satellite System 244
8.4 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Electronic Theodolites 244
8.5 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Laser Systems 258
9 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques 267
9.1 Introduction 268
9.2 Geodetic Deformation Monitoring Schemes and the Design Approach 273
9.3 Monumentation and Targeting 278
9.4 Horizontal Deformation Monitoring and Analysis 284
9.5 Vertical Deformation Monitoring and Analysis 322
10 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High-Definition Survey and Remote Sensing Techniques 329
10.1 Introduction 330
10.2 Laser Systems 330
10.3 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technologies 350
10.4 Comparison of Laser (LiDAR) and Radar (InSAR) Technologies 376
11 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques 377
11.1 Introduction 378
11.2 Overview of Geotechnical and Structural Instrumentation 380
11.3 Design of Geotechnical and Structural Monitoring Schemes 419
11.4 Analysis of Geotechnical Measurements 422
11.5 Integrated Deformation Monitoring System 437
12 Mining Surveying 441
12.1 Introduction 442
12.2 Mining Terminology 445
12.3 Horizontal Mine Orientation Surveys 446
12.4 Transferring Levels or Heights Underground 483
12.5 Volume Determination in Mines 491
13 Tunneling Surveys 495
13.1 Introduction 495
13.2 Basic Elements and Methods of Tunneling Surveys 496
13.3 Main Sources of Error in Tunneling Surveys 500
13.4 Horizontal Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys 503
13.5 Vertical Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys 508
13.6 Numerical Example: Horizontal Breakthrough Analysis 512
13.7 Examples of Tunneling Surveys 516
13.8 Analysis of Underground Traverse Surveys 520
14 Precision Alignment Surveys 527
14.1 Introduction 527
14.2 Direct Laser Alignment Technique 530
14.3 Conventional Surveying Techniques of Alignment 530
14.4 Optical-Tooling Techniques 538
14.5 Metrology by Laser Interferometer Systems 559
14.6 Alignment by Polar Measurement Systems 565
14.7 Main Sources of Error in Alignment Surveys 573
Appendix I: Extracts From Baarda's Nomogram 575
Appendix II: Commonly used Statistical Tables 577
Appendix III: Tau Distribution Table for Significance Level ? 581
Appendix IV: Important Units 587
References 589
Index 607
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv
1 Precision Survey Properties and Techniques 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Basic Classification of Precision Surveys 3
1.3 Precision Geodetic Survey Techniques 8
1.4 Review of Some Safety Issues 12
2 Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors 15
2.1 Observables, Measurements and Measuring Instruments 15
2.2 Angle and Direction Measuring Instruments 16
2.3 Elevation Difference Measuring Instrument 20
2.4 Distance Measuring Instrument 24
2.5 Accuracy Limitations of Modern Survey Instruments 25
2.6 Error Properties of Measurements 28
2.7 Precision and Accuracy Indicators 29
2.8 Systematic Error and Random Error Propagation Laws 30
2.9 Statistical Test of Hypotheses: The Tools for Data Analysis 38
2.10 Need for Equipment Calibration and Testing 44
3 Standards and Specifications for Precision Surveys 47
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Standards and the Concept of Confidence Regions 51
3.3 Standards for Traditional Vertical Control Surveys 52
3.4 Standards for Horizontal Control Surveys 66
3.5 Unified Standards for Positional Accuracy 72
3.6 Map and Geospatial Data Accuracy Standards 77
3.7 Quality and Standards 82
4 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System 87
4.1 Sources of Errors in Angle Measurements 87
4.2 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Measurement Process 88
4.3 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Adjustment Process 98
4.4 Summary of Systematic Error Elimination 106
4.5 Random Error Estimation 106
4.6 Testing Procedure for Precision Theodolites 123
5 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System 133
5.1 Introduction 133
5.2 General Properties of Waves 134
5.3 Application of EM Waves to EDM 138
5.4 EDM Instrumental Errors 153
5.5 EDM External Errors 154
5.6 Random Error Propagation of EDM Distance Measurement 155
5.7 Calibration and Testing Procedures for EDM Instruments 165
6 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Elevation and Coordinate Difference Measurement Systems 189
6.1 Introduction 189
6.2 Pointing Error 190
6.3 Reading/Rod Plumbing Error 191
6.4 Leveling Error 191
6.5 Collimation, Rod Scale, and Rod Index Errors 192
6.6 Effects of Vertical Atmospheric Refraction and Earth Curvature 193
6.7 Random Error Propagation for Elevation Difference Measurements 194
6.8 Testing Procedures for Leveling Equipment 197
6.9 Calibration of Coordinate Difference Measurement System (GNSS Equipment) 203
7 Survey Design and Analysis 209
7.1 Introduction 209
7.2 Network Design 211
7.3 Solution Approaches to Design Problems 218
7.4 Network Adjustment and Analysis 223
7.5 Angular Measurement Design Example 223
7.6 Distance Measurement Design Example 226
7.7 Traverse Measurement Design Examples 227
7.8 Elevation Difference Measurement Design Example 235
8 Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems 237
8.1 Introduction 238
8.2 Coordinate System for Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems 243
8.3 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Global Navigation Satellite System 244
8.4 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Electronic Theodolites 244
8.5 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Laser Systems 258
9 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques 267
9.1 Introduction 268
9.2 Geodetic Deformation Monitoring Schemes and the Design Approach 273
9.3 Monumentation and Targeting 278
9.4 Horizontal Deformation Monitoring and Analysis 284
9.5 Vertical Deformation Monitoring and Analysis 322
10 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High-Definition Survey and Remote Sensing Techniques 329
10.1 Introduction 330
10.2 Laser Systems 330
10.3 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technologies 350
10.4 Comparison of Laser (LiDAR) and Radar (InSAR) Technologies 376
11 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques 377
11.1 Introduction 378
11.2 Overview of Geotechnical and Structural Instrumentation 380
11.3 Design of Geotechnical and Structural Monitoring Schemes 419
11.4 Analysis of Geotechnical Measurements 422
11.5 Integrated Deformation Monitoring System 437
12 Mining Surveying 441
12.1 Introduction 442
12.2 Mining Terminology 445
12.3 Horizontal Mine Orientation Surveys 446
12.4 Transferring Levels or Heights Underground 483
12.5 Volume Determination in Mines 491
13 Tunneling Surveys 495
13.1 Introduction 495
13.2 Basic Elements and Methods of Tunneling Surveys 496
13.3 Main Sources of Error in Tunneling Surveys 500
13.4 Horizontal Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys 503
13.5 Vertical Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys 508
13.6 Numerical Example: Horizontal Breakthrough Analysis 512
13.7 Examples of Tunneling Surveys 516
13.8 Analysis of Underground Traverse Surveys 520
14 Precision Alignment Surveys 527
14.1 Introduction 527
14.2 Direct Laser Alignment Technique 530
14.3 Conventional Surveying Techniques of Alignment 530
14.4 Optical-Tooling Techniques 538
14.5 Metrology by Laser Interferometer Systems 559
14.6 Alignment by Polar Measurement Systems 565
14.7 Main Sources of Error in Alignment Surveys 573
Appendix I: Extracts From Baarda's Nomogram 575
Appendix II: Commonly used Statistical Tables 577
Appendix III: Tau Distribution Table for Significance Level ? 581
Appendix IV: Important Units 587
References 589
Index 607
Este título pertence ao(s) assunto(s) indicados(s). Para ver outros títulos clique no assunto desejado.
Precision Surveying; Geomatics; Deformation Monitoring; Deformation Analysis; Geodetic Engineering Survey; Optical Theodolites; Electronic Digital Theodolite; Gyro-Theodolite; Gyro-Station Equipment; GNSS Surveying; Angle and Direction Measuring; Elevation Difference Measuring; Distance Measuring; Accuracy Limitations of Modem Survey; Standards for Precision Surveys; National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA); Zenith Angle Measurements; Evaluation of Distance Measurement (EDM) System; Collimation; 3D Coordinating Systems; Electronic Theodolites; Terrestrial Laser Scanning System; Horizontal Deformation Monitoring and Analysis; Iterative Weighted Similarity Transformation (IWST); Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technologies (InSAR); Ground-Based InSAR (GB-InSAR); Mining Surveying; Tunneling Surveying; Alignment Surveys
About the Author xvii
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv
1 Precision Survey Properties and Techniques 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Basic Classification of Precision Surveys 3
1.3 Precision Geodetic Survey Techniques 8
1.4 Review of Some Safety Issues 12
2 Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors 15
2.1 Observables, Measurements and Measuring Instruments 15
2.2 Angle and Direction Measuring Instruments 16
2.3 Elevation Difference Measuring Instrument 20
2.4 Distance Measuring Instrument 24
2.5 Accuracy Limitations of Modern Survey Instruments 25
2.6 Error Properties of Measurements 28
2.7 Precision and Accuracy Indicators 29
2.8 Systematic Error and Random Error Propagation Laws 30
2.9 Statistical Test of Hypotheses: The Tools for Data Analysis 38
2.10 Need for Equipment Calibration and Testing 44
3 Standards and Specifications for Precision Surveys 47
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Standards and the Concept of Confidence Regions 51
3.3 Standards for Traditional Vertical Control Surveys 52
3.4 Standards for Horizontal Control Surveys 66
3.5 Unified Standards for Positional Accuracy 72
3.6 Map and Geospatial Data Accuracy Standards 77
3.7 Quality and Standards 82
4 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System 87
4.1 Sources of Errors in Angle Measurements 87
4.2 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Measurement Process 88
4.3 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Adjustment Process 98
4.4 Summary of Systematic Error Elimination 106
4.5 Random Error Estimation 106
4.6 Testing Procedure for Precision Theodolites 123
5 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System 133
5.1 Introduction 133
5.2 General Properties of Waves 134
5.3 Application of EM Waves to EDM 138
5.4 EDM Instrumental Errors 153
5.5 EDM External Errors 154
5.6 Random Error Propagation of EDM Distance Measurement 155
5.7 Calibration and Testing Procedures for EDM Instruments 165
6 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Elevation and Coordinate Difference Measurement Systems 189
6.1 Introduction 189
6.2 Pointing Error 190
6.3 Reading/Rod Plumbing Error 191
6.4 Leveling Error 191
6.5 Collimation, Rod Scale, and Rod Index Errors 192
6.6 Effects of Vertical Atmospheric Refraction and Earth Curvature 193
6.7 Random Error Propagation for Elevation Difference Measurements 194
6.8 Testing Procedures for Leveling Equipment 197
6.9 Calibration of Coordinate Difference Measurement System (GNSS Equipment) 203
7 Survey Design and Analysis 209
7.1 Introduction 209
7.2 Network Design 211
7.3 Solution Approaches to Design Problems 218
7.4 Network Adjustment and Analysis 223
7.5 Angular Measurement Design Example 223
7.6 Distance Measurement Design Example 226
7.7 Traverse Measurement Design Examples 227
7.8 Elevation Difference Measurement Design Example 235
8 Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems 237
8.1 Introduction 238
8.2 Coordinate System for Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems 243
8.3 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Global Navigation Satellite System 244
8.4 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Electronic Theodolites 244
8.5 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Laser Systems 258
9 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques 267
9.1 Introduction 268
9.2 Geodetic Deformation Monitoring Schemes and the Design Approach 273
9.3 Monumentation and Targeting 278
9.4 Horizontal Deformation Monitoring and Analysis 284
9.5 Vertical Deformation Monitoring and Analysis 322
10 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High-Definition Survey and Remote Sensing Techniques 329
10.1 Introduction 330
10.2 Laser Systems 330
10.3 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technologies 350
10.4 Comparison of Laser (LiDAR) and Radar (InSAR) Technologies 376
11 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques 377
11.1 Introduction 378
11.2 Overview of Geotechnical and Structural Instrumentation 380
11.3 Design of Geotechnical and Structural Monitoring Schemes 419
11.4 Analysis of Geotechnical Measurements 422
11.5 Integrated Deformation Monitoring System 437
12 Mining Surveying 441
12.1 Introduction 442
12.2 Mining Terminology 445
12.3 Horizontal Mine Orientation Surveys 446
12.4 Transferring Levels or Heights Underground 483
12.5 Volume Determination in Mines 491
13 Tunneling Surveys 495
13.1 Introduction 495
13.2 Basic Elements and Methods of Tunneling Surveys 496
13.3 Main Sources of Error in Tunneling Surveys 500
13.4 Horizontal Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys 503
13.5 Vertical Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys 508
13.6 Numerical Example: Horizontal Breakthrough Analysis 512
13.7 Examples of Tunneling Surveys 516
13.8 Analysis of Underground Traverse Surveys 520
14 Precision Alignment Surveys 527
14.1 Introduction 527
14.2 Direct Laser Alignment Technique 530
14.3 Conventional Surveying Techniques of Alignment 530
14.4 Optical-Tooling Techniques 538
14.5 Metrology by Laser Interferometer Systems 559
14.6 Alignment by Polar Measurement Systems 565
14.7 Main Sources of Error in Alignment Surveys 573
Appendix I: Extracts From Baarda's Nomogram 575
Appendix II: Commonly used Statistical Tables 577
Appendix III: Tau Distribution Table for Significance Level ? 581
Appendix IV: Important Units 587
References 589
Index 607
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxv
1 Precision Survey Properties and Techniques 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Basic Classification of Precision Surveys 3
1.3 Precision Geodetic Survey Techniques 8
1.4 Review of Some Safety Issues 12
2 Observables, Measuring Instruments, and Theory of Observation Errors 15
2.1 Observables, Measurements and Measuring Instruments 15
2.2 Angle and Direction Measuring Instruments 16
2.3 Elevation Difference Measuring Instrument 20
2.4 Distance Measuring Instrument 24
2.5 Accuracy Limitations of Modern Survey Instruments 25
2.6 Error Properties of Measurements 28
2.7 Precision and Accuracy Indicators 29
2.8 Systematic Error and Random Error Propagation Laws 30
2.9 Statistical Test of Hypotheses: The Tools for Data Analysis 38
2.10 Need for Equipment Calibration and Testing 44
3 Standards and Specifications for Precision Surveys 47
3.1 Introduction 48
3.2 Standards and the Concept of Confidence Regions 51
3.3 Standards for Traditional Vertical Control Surveys 52
3.4 Standards for Horizontal Control Surveys 66
3.5 Unified Standards for Positional Accuracy 72
3.6 Map and Geospatial Data Accuracy Standards 77
3.7 Quality and Standards 82
4 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Angle Measurement System 87
4.1 Sources of Errors in Angle Measurements 87
4.2 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Measurement Process 88
4.3 Systematic Errors Eliminated by Adjustment Process 98
4.4 Summary of Systematic Error Elimination 106
4.5 Random Error Estimation 106
4.6 Testing Procedure for Precision Theodolites 123
5 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Distance Measurement System 133
5.1 Introduction 133
5.2 General Properties of Waves 134
5.3 Application of EM Waves to EDM 138
5.4 EDM Instrumental Errors 153
5.5 EDM External Errors 154
5.6 Random Error Propagation of EDM Distance Measurement 155
5.7 Calibration and Testing Procedures for EDM Instruments 165
6 Accuracy Analysis and Evaluation of Elevation and Coordinate Difference Measurement Systems 189
6.1 Introduction 189
6.2 Pointing Error 190
6.3 Reading/Rod Plumbing Error 191
6.4 Leveling Error 191
6.5 Collimation, Rod Scale, and Rod Index Errors 192
6.6 Effects of Vertical Atmospheric Refraction and Earth Curvature 193
6.7 Random Error Propagation for Elevation Difference Measurements 194
6.8 Testing Procedures for Leveling Equipment 197
6.9 Calibration of Coordinate Difference Measurement System (GNSS Equipment) 203
7 Survey Design and Analysis 209
7.1 Introduction 209
7.2 Network Design 211
7.3 Solution Approaches to Design Problems 218
7.4 Network Adjustment and Analysis 223
7.5 Angular Measurement Design Example 223
7.6 Distance Measurement Design Example 226
7.7 Traverse Measurement Design Examples 227
7.8 Elevation Difference Measurement Design Example 235
8 Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems 237
8.1 Introduction 238
8.2 Coordinate System for Three-Dimensional Coordinating Systems 243
8.3 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Global Navigation Satellite System 244
8.4 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Electronic Theodolites 244
8.5 Three-Dimensional Coordination with Laser Systems 258
9 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geodetic Techniques 267
9.1 Introduction 268
9.2 Geodetic Deformation Monitoring Schemes and the Design Approach 273
9.3 Monumentation and Targeting 278
9.4 Horizontal Deformation Monitoring and Analysis 284
9.5 Vertical Deformation Monitoring and Analysis 322
10 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: High-Definition Survey and Remote Sensing Techniques 329
10.1 Introduction 330
10.2 Laser Systems 330
10.3 Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technologies 350
10.4 Comparison of Laser (LiDAR) and Radar (InSAR) Technologies 376
11 Deformation Monitoring and Analysis: Geotechnical and Structural Techniques 377
11.1 Introduction 378
11.2 Overview of Geotechnical and Structural Instrumentation 380
11.3 Design of Geotechnical and Structural Monitoring Schemes 419
11.4 Analysis of Geotechnical Measurements 422
11.5 Integrated Deformation Monitoring System 437
12 Mining Surveying 441
12.1 Introduction 442
12.2 Mining Terminology 445
12.3 Horizontal Mine Orientation Surveys 446
12.4 Transferring Levels or Heights Underground 483
12.5 Volume Determination in Mines 491
13 Tunneling Surveys 495
13.1 Introduction 495
13.2 Basic Elements and Methods of Tunneling Surveys 496
13.3 Main Sources of Error in Tunneling Surveys 500
13.4 Horizontal Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys 503
13.5 Vertical Design and Simulation of Tunneling Surveys 508
13.6 Numerical Example: Horizontal Breakthrough Analysis 512
13.7 Examples of Tunneling Surveys 516
13.8 Analysis of Underground Traverse Surveys 520
14 Precision Alignment Surveys 527
14.1 Introduction 527
14.2 Direct Laser Alignment Technique 530
14.3 Conventional Surveying Techniques of Alignment 530
14.4 Optical-Tooling Techniques 538
14.5 Metrology by Laser Interferometer Systems 559
14.6 Alignment by Polar Measurement Systems 565
14.7 Main Sources of Error in Alignment Surveys 573
Appendix I: Extracts From Baarda's Nomogram 575
Appendix II: Commonly used Statistical Tables 577
Appendix III: Tau Distribution Table for Significance Level ? 581
Appendix IV: Important Units 587
References 589
Index 607
Este título pertence ao(s) assunto(s) indicados(s). Para ver outros títulos clique no assunto desejado.
Precision Surveying; Geomatics; Deformation Monitoring; Deformation Analysis; Geodetic Engineering Survey; Optical Theodolites; Electronic Digital Theodolite; Gyro-Theodolite; Gyro-Station Equipment; GNSS Surveying; Angle and Direction Measuring; Elevation Difference Measuring; Distance Measuring; Accuracy Limitations of Modem Survey; Standards for Precision Surveys; National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy (NSSDA); Zenith Angle Measurements; Evaluation of Distance Measurement (EDM) System; Collimation; 3D Coordinating Systems; Electronic Theodolites; Terrestrial Laser Scanning System; Horizontal Deformation Monitoring and Analysis; Iterative Weighted Similarity Transformation (IWST); Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Technologies (InSAR); Ground-Based InSAR (GB-InSAR); Mining Surveying; Tunneling Surveying; Alignment Surveys
