Metallurgy and Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Production

Preface xiii 1 Introduction to Oilfield Metallurgy and Corrosion Control 1 Costs, 1 Safety, 2 Environmental Damage, 2 Corrosion Control, 3 References, 3 2 Chemistry of Corrosion 5 Electrochemistry of Corrosion, 5 Electrochemical Reactions, 5 Electrolyte Conductivity, 6 Faraday's Law of Electrolysis, 6 Electrode Potentials and Current, 6 Corrosion Rate Expressions, 10 pH, 10 Passivity, 11 Potential?pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams, 11 Summary, 12 References, 12 3 Corrosive Environments 15 External Environments, 16 Atmospheric Corrosion, 17 Water as a Corrosive Environment, 18 Soils as Corrosive Environments, 20 Corrosion Under Insulation, 21 Internal Environments, 24 Crude Oil, 24 Natural Gas, 25 Oxygen, 26 Carbon Dioxide, 26 Hydrogen Sulfide, 29 Organic Acids, 32 Scale, 33 Microbially Influenced Corrosion (MIC), 36 Mercury, 41 Hydrates, 41 Fluid Flow Effects on Corrosion, 41 Summary, 41 References, 42 4 Materials 47 Metallurgy Fundamentals, 47 Crystal Structure, 47 Material Defects, Inclusions, and Precipitates, 48 Strengthening Methods, 50 Mechanical Properties, 51 Forming Methods, 60 Castings, 60 Wrought Metal Products, 60 Welding, 61 Clad Metals, 65 Additive Manufacturing, 65 Materials Specifications, 65 API - The American Petroleum Institute, 66 AISI - The American Iron and Steel Institute, 66 ASTM International (Formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials), 66 ASME - The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 67 SAE International (Formerly the Society of Automotive Engineers), 67 UNS - The Universal Numbering System, 67 NACE - The Corrosion Society (Formerly the National Association of Corrosion Engineers), 68 Other Organizations, 68 Use of Materials Specifications, 68 Carbon Steels, Cast Irons, and Low?Alloy Steels, 69 Classifications of Carbon Steels, 71 Alloying Elements and Their Influence on Properties of Steel, 72 Strengthening Methods for Carbon Steels, 74 Quench and Tempered (Q&T) Steels, 75 Carbon Equivalents and Weldability, 76 Cleanliness of Steel, 76 Cast Irons, 76 Corrosion?Resistant Alloys (CRAs), 77 Iron-Nickel Alloys, 77 Stainless Steels, 78 Nickel?based Alloys, 83 Cobalt?based Alloys, 84 Titanium Alloys, 84 Copper Alloys, 86 Aluminum Alloys, 89 Additional Considerations with CRAs, 91 Polymers, Elastomers, and Composites, 93 Materials Selection Guidelines, 97 References, 97 5 Forms of Corrosion 101 Introduction, 101 General Corrosion, 102 Galvanic Corrosion, 104 Galvanic Coupling of Two or More Metals, 104 Area Ratio, 105 Metallurgically Induced Galvanic Corrosion, 107 Environmentally Induced Galvanic Corrosion, 109 Polarity Reversal, 111 Conductivity of the Electrolyte, 111 Control of Galvanic Corrosion, 111 Pitting Corrosion, 112 Occluded Cell Corrosion, 113 Pitting Corrosion Geometry and Stress Concentration, 114 Pitting Initiation, 115 Pitting Resistance Equivalent Numbers (PRENs), 115 Pitting Statistics, 116 Prevention of Pitting Corrosion, 117 Crevice Corrosion, 117 Corrosion Under Pipe Supports (CUPS), 119 Pack Rust, 120 Crevice Corrosion Mechanisms, 121 Alloy Selection, 121 Filiform Corrosion, 122 Intergranular Corrosion, 123 Stainless Steels, 123 Corrosion Parallel to Forming Directions, 124 Aluminum, 124 Other Alloys, 125 Dealloying, 125 Mechanism, 125 Selective Phase Attack, 126 Susceptible Alloys, 126 Control, 126 Erosion Corrosion, 127 Mechanism, 127 Velocity Effects and ANSI/API RP14E, 128 Materials, 130 Cavitation, 130 Areas of Concern, 131 Erosion and Erosion?corrosion Control, 133 Environmentally Assisted Cracking, 134 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC), 135 Hydrogen Embrittlement and H2S?related Cracking, 139 Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME), 143 Corrosion Fatigue, 143 Other Forms of Corrosion Important to Oilfield Operations, 145 Oxygen Attack, 145 Sweet Corrosion, 145 Sour Corrosion, 145 Mesa Corrosion, 145 Top?of?Line (TOL) Corrosion, 145 Channeling Corrosion, 146 Grooving Corrosion: Selective Seam Corrosion, 148 Wireline Corrosion, 148 Additional Forms of Corrosion Found in Oil and Gas Operations, 148 Additional Comments, 152 References, 153 6 Corrosion Control 159 Protective Coatings, 159 Paint Components, 159 Coating Systems, 160 Corrosion Protection by Paint Films, 160 Desirable Properties of Protective Coating Systems, 161 Developments in Coatings Technology, 162 Surface Preparation, 162 Purposes of Various Coatings, 166 Generic Binder Classifications, 167 Coatings Suitable for Various Service Environments or Applications, 169 Coatings Inspection, 169 Areas of Concern and Inspection Concentration, 174 Linings, Wraps, Greases, and Waxes, 176 Coatings Failures, 180 Metallic Coatings, 189 Useful Publications, 192 Water Treatment and Corrosion Inhibition, 192 Oil Production Techniques, 193 Water Analysis, 193 Gas Stripping and Vacuum Deaeration, 194 Corrosion Inhibitors, 194 Cathodic Protection, 199 How Cathodic Protection Works, 201 Types of Cathodic Protection, 203 Cathodic Protection Criteria, 214 Inspection and Monitoring, 216 Cathodic Protection Design, 220 Additional Topics Related to Cathodic Protection, 224 Summary of Cathodic Protection, 227 Standards for Cathodic Protection, 227 References, 228 7 Inspection, Monitoring, and Testing 233 Inspection, 235 Visual Inspection (VT), 235 Penetrant Testing (PT), 236 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT), 237 Ultrasonic Inspection (UT), 237 Radiography (RT), 238 Eddy Current Inspection, 240 Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) Inspection, 241 Positive Material Identification (PMI), 242 Thermography, 242 Additional Remarks About Inspection, 243 Monitoring, 244 Monitoring Probes, 244 Electrochemical Corrosion Rate Monitoring Techniques, 250 Hydrogen Probes, 253 Sand Monitoring, 254 Fluid Analysis, 255 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM), 257 Additional Comments on Monitoring, 258 Testing, 258 Hydrostatic Testing, 258 Laboratory and Field Trial Testing, 260 References, 262 8 Oilfield Equipment 265 Drilling and Exploration, 265 Drill Pipe, 265 Tool Joints, 268 Blowout Preventers (BOPs), 268 Wells and Wellhead Equipment, 269 History of Production, 270 Downhole Corrosive Environments, 271 Annular Spaces, 275 Types of Wells, 275 Tubing, Casing, and Capillary Tubing, 277 Corrosion Inhibitors for Tubing and Casing in Production Wells, 280 Internally Coated Tubing for Oilfield Wells, 283 Wireline, 285 Coiled Tubing, 285 Material and Corrosion Concerns with Artificial Lift Systems, 286 Facilities and Surface Equipment, 291 Piping, 291 Storage Tanks, 293 Heat Exchangers, 297 Other Equipment, 301 Bolting, Studs, and Fasteners, 301 Problems with Bolted Connections, 306 International Bolting Standards, 307 Flares, 312 Corrosion Under Insulation, 312 Pipelines and Flowlines, 319 Pipeline Problems and Failures, 319 Forms of Corrosion Important in Pipelines and Flowlines, 321 Repairs and Derating Due to Corrosion, 323 Casings for Road and Railway Crossings, 323 Pipeline and Flowline Materials, 324 Pipeline Hydrotesting, 326 Seawater Injection Pipelines/Flowlines, 327 External Corrosion of Pipelines, 327 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines, 330 Inspection, Condition Assessment, and Testing, 332 Offshore and Marine Applications, 336 Offshore Pipelines, 336 Offshore Structures, 337 References, 342 Index

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