Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials
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portes grátis
Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials
Advanced Applications Nanocomposites
; ;
John Wiley & Sons Inc
06/2017
608
Dura
Inglês
9781119223832
15 a 20 dias
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Preface xxi 1 Virgin and Recycled Polymers Applied to Advanced Nanocomposites 1 Luis Claudio Mendes and Sibele Piedade Cestari 1.1 Introduction 1 References 12 2 Biodegradable Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Composites for Water and Wastewater Treatments 15 Geoffrey S. Simate 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Composites 17 2.2.1 Introduction 17 2.2.2 Starch-Carbon Nanotube Composites 17 2.2.3 Cellulose-Carbon Nanotube Composites 18 2.2.4 Chitosan-Carbon Nanotubes Composites 20 2.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Composites in Water and Wastewater Treatments 23 2.3.1 Removal of Heavy Metals 23 2.3.2 Removal of Organic Pollutants 26 2.4 Concluding Remarks 27 References 27 3 Eco-Friendly Nanocomposites of Chitosan with Natural Extracts, Antimicrobial Agents, and Nanometals 35 Iosody Silva-Castro, Pablo Martin-Ramos, Petruta Mihaela Matei, Marciabela Fernandes-Correa, Salvador Hernandez-Navarro and Jesus Martin-Gil 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Properties and Formation of Chitosan Oligosaccharides 37 3.3 Nanomaterials from Renewable Materials 39 3.3.1 Chitosan Combined with Biomaterials 39 3.3.2 Chitosan Cross-Linked with Natural Extracts 41 3.3.3 Chitosan Co-Polymerized with Synthetic Species 42 3.4 Synthesis Methods for Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites 44 3.4.1 Biological Methods 44 3.4.2 Physical Methods 45 3.4.3 Chemical Methods 47 3.5 Analytical Techniques for the Identification of the Composite Materials 48 3.6 Advanced Applications of Bionanomaterials Based on Chitosan 49 3.6.1 Antimicrobial Applications 50 3.6.2 Biomedical Applications 51 3.6.2.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Wound Dressings 51 3.6.2.2 Drug Delivery 51 3.6.2.3 Tissue Engineering 51 3.6.3 Food-Related Applications 52 3.6.4 Environmental Applications 52 3.6.4.1 Metal Absorption 52 3.6.4.2 Wastewater Treatment 52 3.6.4.3 Agricultural Crops 53 3.6.5 Applications in Heritage Preservation 53 3.7 Conclusions 54 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 4 Controllable Generation of Renewable Nanofibrils from Green Materials and Their Application in Nanocomposites 61 Jinyou Lin, Xiaran Miao, Xiangzhi Zhang and Fenggang Bian 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 63 4.2.1 Experimental Section 63 4.2.2 Results and Discussion 64 4.2.3 Short Summary 71 4.3 Controllable Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 72 4.3.1 Experimental Section 73 4.3.2 Results and Discussion 74 4.3.3 Short Summary 86 4.4 CNF Generation from Other Nonwood Fibers 86 4.4.1 Experiments Details 86 4.4.1 Results and Discussion 88 4.4.3 Summary 96 4.5 Applications in Nanocomposites 97 4.5.1 CNF-Reinforced Polymer Composite 97 4.5.2 Surface Coating as Barrier 100 4.5.3 Assembled into Microfiber and Film 101 4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 102 Acknowledgments 103 References 103 5 Nanocellulose and Nanocellulose Composites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Applications 109 Ming-Guo Ma, Yan-Jun Liu and Yan-Yan Dong 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Nanocellulose 110 5.3 Nanocellulose Composites 117 5.3.1 Hydrogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 117 5.3.2 Aerogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 120 5.3.3 Electrode Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124 5.3.4 Photocatalytic Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124 5.3.5 Antibacterial Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125 5.3.6 Sustained Release Applications Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125 5.3.7 Sensors Based on the Nanocellulose Composites 127 5.3.8 Mechanical Properties 127 5.3.9 Biodegradation Properties 128 5.3.10 Virus Removal 129 5.3.11 Porous Materials 129 5.4 Summary 130 Acknowledgments 131 References 131 6 Poly(Lactic Acid) Biopolymer Composites and Nanocomposites for Biomedicals and Biopackaging Applications 135 S.C. Agwuncha, E.R. Sadiku, I.D. Ibrahim, B.A. Aderibigbe, S.J. Owonubi O. Agboola, A. Babul Reddy, M. Bandla, K. Varaprasad, B.L. Bayode and S.S. Ray 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Preparations of PLA 137 6.3 Biocomposite 138 6.4 PLA Biocomposites 139 6.5 Nanocomposites 140 6.6 PLA Nanocomposites 140 6.7 Biomaterials 141 6.8 PLA Biomaterials 142 6.9 Processing Advantages of PLA Biomaterials 143 6.10 PLA as Packaging Materials 145 6.11 Biomedical Application of PLA 146 6.12 Medical Implants 146 6.13 Some Clinical Applications of PLA Devices 147 6.13.1 Fibers 147 6.13.2 Meshes 149 6.13.3 Bone Fixation Devices 150 6.13.4 Stress-Shielding Effect 151 6.13.5 Piezoelectric Effect 151 6.13.6 Screws, Pins, and Rods 152 6.13.7 Plates 153 6.13.8 Microspheres, Microcapsules, and Thin Coatings 154 6.14 PLA Packaging Applications 155 6.15 Conclusion 156 References 157 7 Impact of Nanotechnology on Water Treatment: Carbon Nanotube and Graphene 171 Mohd Amil Usmani, Imran Khan, Aamir H. Bhat and M.K. Mohamad Haafiz 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Threats to Water Treatment 173 7.3 Nanotechnology in Water Treatment 173 7.3.1 Nanomaterials for Water Treatment 175 7.3.2 Nanomaterials and Membrane Filtration 176 7.3.3 Metal Nanostructured Materials 178 7.3.4 Naturally Occurring Materials 179 7.3.5 Carbon Nano Compounds 180 7.3.5.1 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Water Purification 181 7.3.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalysts or Co-Catalysts 185 7.3.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalysis 186 7.3.5.4 Carbon Nanotube Filters as Anti-Microbial Materials 188 7.3.5.5 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Seawater Desalination 191 7.4 Polymer Nanocomposites 192 7.4.1 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Water Treatment Membranes 192 7.4.2 Dendrimers 193 7.5 Global Impact of Nanotechnology and Human Health 195 7.6 Conclusions 196 Acknowledgments 196 References 197 8 Nanomaterials in Energy Generation 207 Paulraj Manidurai and Ramkumar Sekar 8.1 Introduction 207 8.1.1 Increasing of Surface Energy and Tension 209 8.1.2 Decrease of Thermal Conductivity 209 8.1.3 The Blue Shift Effect 210 8.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Biology 211 8.3 In Solar Cells 211 8.3.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 212 8.3.2 Composites from Renewable Materials for Photoanode 213 8.3.3 Composites from Renewable Materials for Electrolyte 214 8.3.4 Composites from Renewable Materials for Organic Solar Cells 215 8.4 Visible-Light Active Photocatalyst 216 8.5 Energy Storage 217 8.5.1 Thermal Energy Storage 217 8.5.2 Electrochemical Energy Storage 217 8.6 Biomechanical Energy Harvest and Storage Using Nanogenerator 218 8.7 Nanotechnology on Biogas Production 220 8.7.1 Impact of Metal Oxide Nanoadditives on the Biogas Production 223 8.8 Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities Using Nanoparticles 223 8.8.1 Antibacterial Activity 223 8.8.2 Antioxidant Activity 224 8.9 Conclusion 224 References 224 9 Sustainable Green Nanocomposites from Bacterial Bioplastics for Food-Packaging Applications 229 Ana M. Diez-Pascual 9.1 Introduction 229 9.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications 231 9.2.1 Synthesis 231 9.2.2 Structure 232 9.2.3 Properties 233 9.2.4 Applications 234 9.3 ZnO Nanofillers: Structure, Properties, Synthesis, and Applications 235 9.3.1 Structure 235 9.3.2 Properties 235 9.3.3 Synthesis 236 9.3.4 Applications 237 9.4 Materials and Nanocomposite Processing 239 9.5 Characterization of PHA-Based Nanocomposites 239 9.5.1 Morphology 239 9.5.2 Crystalline Structure 241 9.5.3 FTIR Spectra 242 9.5.4 Crystallization and Melting Behavior 243 9.5.5 Thermal Stability 244 9.5.6 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 245 9.5.7 Static Mechanical Properties 247 9.5.8 Barrier Properties 249 9.5.9 Migration Properties 250 9.5.10 Antibacterial Properties 251 9.6 Conclusions and Outlook 253 References 253 10 PLA Nanocomposites: A Promising Material for Future from Renewable Resources 259 Selvaraj Mohana Roopan, J. Fowsiya, D. Devi Priya and G. Madhumitha 10.1 Introduction 259 10.1.1 Nanotechnology 259 10.1.2 Nanocomposites 260 10.2 Biopolymers 260 10.2.1 Structural Formulas of Few Biopolymers 261 10.2.2 Polylactide Polymers 261 10.3 PLA Production 262 10.3.1 PLA Properties 263 10.3.1.1 Rheological Properties 263 10.3.1.2 Mechanical Properties 263 10.4 PLA-Based Nanocomposites 264 10.4.1 Preparation of PLA Nanocomposites 264 10.4.2 Recent Research on PLA Nanocomposites 264 10.4.3 Application of PLA Nanocomposites 265 10.5 PLA Nanocomposites 265 10.5.1 PLA/Layered Silicate Nanocomposite 266 10.5.2 PLA/Carbon Nanotubes Nanocomposites 268 10.5.3 PLA/Starch Nanocomposites 268 10.5.4 PLA/Cellulose Nanocomposites 270 10.6 Conclusion 271 References 271 11 Biocomposites from Renewable Resources: Preparation and Applications of Chitosan-Clay Nanocomposites 275 A. Babul Reddy, B. Manjula, T. Jayaramudu, S.J. Owonubi, E.R. Sadiku, O. Agboola, V. Sivanjineyulu and Gomotsegang F. Molelekwa 11.1 Introduction 276 11.2 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Chitosan and its Nanocomposites 278 11.3 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Montmorillonite 283 11.4 Chitosan-Clay Nanocomposites 284 11.5 Preparation Chitosan-Clay Nanocomposites 286 11.6 Applications of Chitosan-Clay Nanocomposites 290 11.6.1 Food-Packaging Applications 290 11.6.2 Electroanalytical Applications 291 11.6.3 Tissue-Engineering Applications 292 11.6.4 Electrochemical Sensors Applications 292 11.6.5 Wastewater Treatment Applications 293 11.6.6 Drug Delivery Systems 294 11.7 Conclusions 295 Acknowledgment 296 References 296 12 Nanomaterials: An Advanced and Versatile Nanoadditive for Kraft and Paper Industries 305 Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli, Samira Bagheri and Negar Mansouri 12.1 An Overview: Paper Industries 305 12.1.1 Manufacturing: Paper Industries 306 12.1.2 Nanotechnology 306 12.1.3 Nanotechnology: Paper Industries 307 12.2 Nanobleaching Agents: Paper Industries 307 12.2.1 Nano Calcium Silicate Particle 307 12.3 Nanosizing Agents: Paper Industries 308 12.3.1 Nanosilica/Hybrid 308 12.3.2 Nano Titanium Oxide/Hybrid 308 12.4 Nano Wet/Dry Strength Agents: Paper Industries 309 12.4.1 Nanocellulose 309 12.5 Nanopigment: Paper Industries 311 12.5.1 Nanokaolin 312 12.5.2 Nano ZnO/Hybrid 312 12.5.3 Nanocarbonate 313 12.6 Nanoretention Agents: Paper Industries 313 12.6.1 Nanozeolite 313 12.6.2 Nano TiO2 313 12.7 Nanomineral Filler: Paper Industries 314 12.7.1 Nanoclay 315 12.7.2 Nano Calcium Carbonate 315 12.7.3 Nano TiO2/Hybrid 315 12.8 Nano Superconductor Agents: Paper Industries 315 12.8.1 Nano ZnO 315 12.9 Nanodispersion Agents: Paper Industries 316 12.9.1 Nanopolymer 316 12.10 Certain Challenges Associated with Nanoadditives 317 12.11 Conclusion and Future Prospective 317 Acknowledgments 318 Conflict of Interests 318 References 318 13 Composites and Nanocomposites Based on Polylactic Acid 327 Mihai Cosmin Corobea, Zina Vuluga, Dorel Florea, Florin Miculescu and Stefan Ioan Voicu 13.1 Introduction 327 13.2 Obtaining Composites and Nanocomposite Based on PLA 329 13.2.1 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Composites Based on PLA 332 13.2.2 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Nanocomposite Based on PLA 336 13.2.3 Applications 351 13.3 Conclusions 352 Acknowledgment 353 References 353 14 Cellulose-Containing Scaffolds Fabricated by Electrospinning: Applications in Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery 361 Alex Lopez-Cordoba, Guillermo R. Castro and Silvia Goyanes 14.1 Introduction 361 14.2 Cellulose: Structure and Major Sources 362 14.3 Cellulose Nanofibers Fabricated by Electrospinning 364 14.3.1 Electrospinning Set-Up 364 14.3.2 Modified Electrospinning Processes 365 14.3.3 Electrospinnability of Cellulose and its Derivatives 366 14.4 Cellulose-Containing Nanocomposite Fabricated by Electrospinning 369 14.4.1 Electrospun Nanocomposites Reinforced with Nanocellulosic Materials 370 14.4.2 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Blends of Cellulose or its Derivatives with Nanoparticles 370 14.4.3 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose/Polymer Blends 373 14.4.4 Electrospun All-Cellulose Composites 374 14.5 Applications of Cellulose-Containing Electrospun Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering 375 14.6 Cellulose/Polymer Electrospun Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 379 14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 382 Acknowledgments 382 References 382 15 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites for Environmental Applications 389 Ibrahim M. El-Sherbiny and Isra H. Ali 15.1 Introduction 389 15.1.1 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Origin 390 15.1.2 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Structure 390 15.1.3 Biopolymers as Promising Eco-Friendly Materials 390 15.2 Biopolymers: Chemistry and Properties 391 15.2.1 Polysaccharides 391 15.2.1.1 Starch 391 15.2.1.2 Cellulose 393 15.2.1.3 Chitin 395 15.2.2 Alginate 397 15.2.2.1 Origin 397 15.2.3 Proteins 398 15.2.3.1 Albumin 398 15.2.3.2 Collagen 398 15.2.3.3 Gelatin 399 15.2.3.4 Silk Proteins 399 15.2.3.5 Keratin 400 15.2.4 Microbial Polyesters 400 15.2.4.1 Polyhydroxylalkanoates 400 15.3 Preparation Techniques of Polymer Nanocomposites 400 15.3.1 Direct Compounding 400 15.3.2 In Situ Synthesis 401 15.3.3 Other Techniques 402 15.3.3.1 Electrospinning 403 15.3.3.2 Self-Assembly 403 15.3.3.3 Phase Separation 403 15.3.3.4 Template Synthesis 403 15.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites 403 15.5 Environmental Application of Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites 404 15.5.1 Pollutants Removal: Catalytic and Redox Degradation 404 15.5.1.1 Semiconductor Nanoparticles 405 15.5.1.2 Zero-Valent Metals Nanoparticles 405 15.5.1.3 Bimetallic Nanoparticles 406 15.5.2 Pollutants Removal: Adsorption 406 15.5.3 Pollutants Sensing 407 15.5.4 Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites in Green Chemistry 407 15.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 409 References 409 16 Calcium Phosphate Nanocomposites for Biomedical and Dental Applications: Recent Developments 423 Andy H. Choi and Besim Ben-Nissan 16.1 Introduction 423 16.2 Hydroxyapatite 426 16.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Coatings 428 16.3.1 Collagen 428 16.3.2 Chitosan 429 16.3.3 Liposomes 430 16.3.4 Synthetic Polymers 430 16.4 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 431 16.4.1 Calcium Phosphate-Chitosan Nanocomposites 433 16.4.2 Calcium Phosphate-Collagen Nanocomposites 434 16.4.3 Calcium Phosphate-Silk Fibroin Nanocomposites 436 16.4.4 Calcium Phosphate-Cellulose Nanocomposites 437 16.4.5 Calcium Phosphate-Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites 437 16.5 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 438 16.6 Concluding Remarks 443 References 444 17 Chitosan-Metal Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications 451 Vinod Saharan, Ajay Pal, Ramesh Raliya and Pratim Biswas 17.1 Introduction 451 17.2 Chitosan: A Promising Biopolymer 452 17.2.1 Degree of Deacetylation 453 17.2.2 Chitosan Depolymerization 453 17.3 Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 454 17.3.1 Synthesis of Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 455 17.3.1.1 Ionic Gelation Method 455 17.4 Chitosan-Metal Nanocomposites 456 17.4.1 Chitosan-Zn Nanocomposite 456 17.4.2 Chitosan-Cu Nanocomposite 456 17.4.3 Application of Cu and Zn-Chitosan-Cu Nanocomposite 459 17.5 Other Natural Biopolymer in Comparison with Chitosan 461 17.6 Conclusion 462 References 462 18 Multicarboxyl-Functionalized Nanocellulose/Nanobentonite Composite for the Effective Removal and Recovery of Uranium (VI), Thorium (IV), and Cobalt (II) from Nuclear Industry Effluents and Sea Water 465 T.S. Anirudhan and J.R. Deepa 18.1 Introduction 465 18.2 Materials and Methods 468 18.2.1 Materials 468 18.2.2 Equipment and Methods of Characterization 468 18.2.3 Preparation of Adsorbent 468 18.2.4 Adsorption Experiments 469 18.2.5 Desorption Experiments 470 18.2.6 Grafting Density 470 18.2.7 Determination of Functional Groups 470 18.2.8 Point of Zero Charge 471 18.3 Results and Discussion 471 18.3.1 FTIR Analysis 471 18.3.2 XRD Analysis 473 18.3.3 Point of Zero Charge, Degree of Grafting, and -COOH Determination 474 18.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis 475 18.3.5 Effect of pH on Metal Ions Adsorption 475 18.3.6 Adsorption Kinetics 477 18.3.7 Adsorption Isotherm 479 18.3.8 Adsorption Thermodynamics 480 18.3.9 Reuse of the Adsorbent 481 18.3.10 Test of the Adsorbent with Nuclear Industry Wastewater and Sea Water 482 18.4 Conclusions 483 Acknowledgments 483 References 483
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Preface xxi 1 Virgin and Recycled Polymers Applied to Advanced Nanocomposites 1 Luis Claudio Mendes and Sibele Piedade Cestari 1.1 Introduction 1 References 12 2 Biodegradable Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Composites for Water and Wastewater Treatments 15 Geoffrey S. Simate 2.1 Introduction 15 2.2 Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Composites 17 2.2.1 Introduction 17 2.2.2 Starch-Carbon Nanotube Composites 17 2.2.3 Cellulose-Carbon Nanotube Composites 18 2.2.4 Chitosan-Carbon Nanotubes Composites 20 2.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymer-Carbon Nanotube Composites in Water and Wastewater Treatments 23 2.3.1 Removal of Heavy Metals 23 2.3.2 Removal of Organic Pollutants 26 2.4 Concluding Remarks 27 References 27 3 Eco-Friendly Nanocomposites of Chitosan with Natural Extracts, Antimicrobial Agents, and Nanometals 35 Iosody Silva-Castro, Pablo Martin-Ramos, Petruta Mihaela Matei, Marciabela Fernandes-Correa, Salvador Hernandez-Navarro and Jesus Martin-Gil 3.1 Introduction 35 3.2 Properties and Formation of Chitosan Oligosaccharides 37 3.3 Nanomaterials from Renewable Materials 39 3.3.1 Chitosan Combined with Biomaterials 39 3.3.2 Chitosan Cross-Linked with Natural Extracts 41 3.3.3 Chitosan Co-Polymerized with Synthetic Species 42 3.4 Synthesis Methods for Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites 44 3.4.1 Biological Methods 44 3.4.2 Physical Methods 45 3.4.3 Chemical Methods 47 3.5 Analytical Techniques for the Identification of the Composite Materials 48 3.6 Advanced Applications of Bionanomaterials Based on Chitosan 49 3.6.1 Antimicrobial Applications 50 3.6.2 Biomedical Applications 51 3.6.2.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Wound Dressings 51 3.6.2.2 Drug Delivery 51 3.6.2.3 Tissue Engineering 51 3.6.3 Food-Related Applications 52 3.6.4 Environmental Applications 52 3.6.4.1 Metal Absorption 52 3.6.4.2 Wastewater Treatment 52 3.6.4.3 Agricultural Crops 53 3.6.5 Applications in Heritage Preservation 53 3.7 Conclusions 54 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 4 Controllable Generation of Renewable Nanofibrils from Green Materials and Their Application in Nanocomposites 61 Jinyou Lin, Xiaran Miao, Xiangzhi Zhang and Fenggang Bian 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 63 4.2.1 Experimental Section 63 4.2.2 Results and Discussion 64 4.2.3 Short Summary 71 4.3 Controllable Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers 72 4.3.1 Experimental Section 73 4.3.2 Results and Discussion 74 4.3.3 Short Summary 86 4.4 CNF Generation from Other Nonwood Fibers 86 4.4.1 Experiments Details 86 4.4.1 Results and Discussion 88 4.4.3 Summary 96 4.5 Applications in Nanocomposites 97 4.5.1 CNF-Reinforced Polymer Composite 97 4.5.2 Surface Coating as Barrier 100 4.5.3 Assembled into Microfiber and Film 101 4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives 102 Acknowledgments 103 References 103 5 Nanocellulose and Nanocellulose Composites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Applications 109 Ming-Guo Ma, Yan-Jun Liu and Yan-Yan Dong 5.1 Introduction 109 5.2 Nanocellulose 110 5.3 Nanocellulose Composites 117 5.3.1 Hydrogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 117 5.3.2 Aerogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites 120 5.3.3 Electrode Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124 5.3.4 Photocatalytic Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 124 5.3.5 Antibacterial Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125 5.3.6 Sustained Release Applications Based on Nanocellulose Composites 125 5.3.7 Sensors Based on the Nanocellulose Composites 127 5.3.8 Mechanical Properties 127 5.3.9 Biodegradation Properties 128 5.3.10 Virus Removal 129 5.3.11 Porous Materials 129 5.4 Summary 130 Acknowledgments 131 References 131 6 Poly(Lactic Acid) Biopolymer Composites and Nanocomposites for Biomedicals and Biopackaging Applications 135 S.C. Agwuncha, E.R. Sadiku, I.D. Ibrahim, B.A. Aderibigbe, S.J. Owonubi O. Agboola, A. Babul Reddy, M. Bandla, K. Varaprasad, B.L. Bayode and S.S. Ray 6.1 Introduction 135 6.2 Preparations of PLA 137 6.3 Biocomposite 138 6.4 PLA Biocomposites 139 6.5 Nanocomposites 140 6.6 PLA Nanocomposites 140 6.7 Biomaterials 141 6.8 PLA Biomaterials 142 6.9 Processing Advantages of PLA Biomaterials 143 6.10 PLA as Packaging Materials 145 6.11 Biomedical Application of PLA 146 6.12 Medical Implants 146 6.13 Some Clinical Applications of PLA Devices 147 6.13.1 Fibers 147 6.13.2 Meshes 149 6.13.3 Bone Fixation Devices 150 6.13.4 Stress-Shielding Effect 151 6.13.5 Piezoelectric Effect 151 6.13.6 Screws, Pins, and Rods 152 6.13.7 Plates 153 6.13.8 Microspheres, Microcapsules, and Thin Coatings 154 6.14 PLA Packaging Applications 155 6.15 Conclusion 156 References 157 7 Impact of Nanotechnology on Water Treatment: Carbon Nanotube and Graphene 171 Mohd Amil Usmani, Imran Khan, Aamir H. Bhat and M.K. Mohamad Haafiz 7.1 Introduction 171 7.2 Threats to Water Treatment 173 7.3 Nanotechnology in Water Treatment 173 7.3.1 Nanomaterials for Water Treatment 175 7.3.2 Nanomaterials and Membrane Filtration 176 7.3.3 Metal Nanostructured Materials 178 7.3.4 Naturally Occurring Materials 179 7.3.5 Carbon Nano Compounds 180 7.3.5.1 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Water Purification 181 7.3.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalysts or Co-Catalysts 185 7.3.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalysis 186 7.3.5.4 Carbon Nanotube Filters as Anti-Microbial Materials 188 7.3.5.5 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Seawater Desalination 191 7.4 Polymer Nanocomposites 192 7.4.1 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Water Treatment Membranes 192 7.4.2 Dendrimers 193 7.5 Global Impact of Nanotechnology and Human Health 195 7.6 Conclusions 196 Acknowledgments 196 References 197 8 Nanomaterials in Energy Generation 207 Paulraj Manidurai and Ramkumar Sekar 8.1 Introduction 207 8.1.1 Increasing of Surface Energy and Tension 209 8.1.2 Decrease of Thermal Conductivity 209 8.1.3 The Blue Shift Effect 210 8.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Biology 211 8.3 In Solar Cells 211 8.3.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell 212 8.3.2 Composites from Renewable Materials for Photoanode 213 8.3.3 Composites from Renewable Materials for Electrolyte 214 8.3.4 Composites from Renewable Materials for Organic Solar Cells 215 8.4 Visible-Light Active Photocatalyst 216 8.5 Energy Storage 217 8.5.1 Thermal Energy Storage 217 8.5.2 Electrochemical Energy Storage 217 8.6 Biomechanical Energy Harvest and Storage Using Nanogenerator 218 8.7 Nanotechnology on Biogas Production 220 8.7.1 Impact of Metal Oxide Nanoadditives on the Biogas Production 223 8.8 Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities Using Nanoparticles 223 8.8.1 Antibacterial Activity 223 8.8.2 Antioxidant Activity 224 8.9 Conclusion 224 References 224 9 Sustainable Green Nanocomposites from Bacterial Bioplastics for Food-Packaging Applications 229 Ana M. Diez-Pascual 9.1 Introduction 229 9.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications 231 9.2.1 Synthesis 231 9.2.2 Structure 232 9.2.3 Properties 233 9.2.4 Applications 234 9.3 ZnO Nanofillers: Structure, Properties, Synthesis, and Applications 235 9.3.1 Structure 235 9.3.2 Properties 235 9.3.3 Synthesis 236 9.3.4 Applications 237 9.4 Materials and Nanocomposite Processing 239 9.5 Characterization of PHA-Based Nanocomposites 239 9.5.1 Morphology 239 9.5.2 Crystalline Structure 241 9.5.3 FTIR Spectra 242 9.5.4 Crystallization and Melting Behavior 243 9.5.5 Thermal Stability 244 9.5.6 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 245 9.5.7 Static Mechanical Properties 247 9.5.8 Barrier Properties 249 9.5.9 Migration Properties 250 9.5.10 Antibacterial Properties 251 9.6 Conclusions and Outlook 253 References 253 10 PLA Nanocomposites: A Promising Material for Future from Renewable Resources 259 Selvaraj Mohana Roopan, J. Fowsiya, D. Devi Priya and G. Madhumitha 10.1 Introduction 259 10.1.1 Nanotechnology 259 10.1.2 Nanocomposites 260 10.2 Biopolymers 260 10.2.1 Structural Formulas of Few Biopolymers 261 10.2.2 Polylactide Polymers 261 10.3 PLA Production 262 10.3.1 PLA Properties 263 10.3.1.1 Rheological Properties 263 10.3.1.2 Mechanical Properties 263 10.4 PLA-Based Nanocomposites 264 10.4.1 Preparation of PLA Nanocomposites 264 10.4.2 Recent Research on PLA Nanocomposites 264 10.4.3 Application of PLA Nanocomposites 265 10.5 PLA Nanocomposites 265 10.5.1 PLA/Layered Silicate Nanocomposite 266 10.5.2 PLA/Carbon Nanotubes Nanocomposites 268 10.5.3 PLA/Starch Nanocomposites 268 10.5.4 PLA/Cellulose Nanocomposites 270 10.6 Conclusion 271 References 271 11 Biocomposites from Renewable Resources: Preparation and Applications of Chitosan-Clay Nanocomposites 275 A. Babul Reddy, B. Manjula, T. Jayaramudu, S.J. Owonubi, E.R. Sadiku, O. Agboola, V. Sivanjineyulu and Gomotsegang F. Molelekwa 11.1 Introduction 276 11.2 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Chitosan and its Nanocomposites 278 11.3 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Montmorillonite 283 11.4 Chitosan-Clay Nanocomposites 284 11.5 Preparation Chitosan-Clay Nanocomposites 286 11.6 Applications of Chitosan-Clay Nanocomposites 290 11.6.1 Food-Packaging Applications 290 11.6.2 Electroanalytical Applications 291 11.6.3 Tissue-Engineering Applications 292 11.6.4 Electrochemical Sensors Applications 292 11.6.5 Wastewater Treatment Applications 293 11.6.6 Drug Delivery Systems 294 11.7 Conclusions 295 Acknowledgment 296 References 296 12 Nanomaterials: An Advanced and Versatile Nanoadditive for Kraft and Paper Industries 305 Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli, Samira Bagheri and Negar Mansouri 12.1 An Overview: Paper Industries 305 12.1.1 Manufacturing: Paper Industries 306 12.1.2 Nanotechnology 306 12.1.3 Nanotechnology: Paper Industries 307 12.2 Nanobleaching Agents: Paper Industries 307 12.2.1 Nano Calcium Silicate Particle 307 12.3 Nanosizing Agents: Paper Industries 308 12.3.1 Nanosilica/Hybrid 308 12.3.2 Nano Titanium Oxide/Hybrid 308 12.4 Nano Wet/Dry Strength Agents: Paper Industries 309 12.4.1 Nanocellulose 309 12.5 Nanopigment: Paper Industries 311 12.5.1 Nanokaolin 312 12.5.2 Nano ZnO/Hybrid 312 12.5.3 Nanocarbonate 313 12.6 Nanoretention Agents: Paper Industries 313 12.6.1 Nanozeolite 313 12.6.2 Nano TiO2 313 12.7 Nanomineral Filler: Paper Industries 314 12.7.1 Nanoclay 315 12.7.2 Nano Calcium Carbonate 315 12.7.3 Nano TiO2/Hybrid 315 12.8 Nano Superconductor Agents: Paper Industries 315 12.8.1 Nano ZnO 315 12.9 Nanodispersion Agents: Paper Industries 316 12.9.1 Nanopolymer 316 12.10 Certain Challenges Associated with Nanoadditives 317 12.11 Conclusion and Future Prospective 317 Acknowledgments 318 Conflict of Interests 318 References 318 13 Composites and Nanocomposites Based on Polylactic Acid 327 Mihai Cosmin Corobea, Zina Vuluga, Dorel Florea, Florin Miculescu and Stefan Ioan Voicu 13.1 Introduction 327 13.2 Obtaining Composites and Nanocomposite Based on PLA 329 13.2.1 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Composites Based on PLA 332 13.2.2 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Nanocomposite Based on PLA 336 13.2.3 Applications 351 13.3 Conclusions 352 Acknowledgment 353 References 353 14 Cellulose-Containing Scaffolds Fabricated by Electrospinning: Applications in Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery 361 Alex Lopez-Cordoba, Guillermo R. Castro and Silvia Goyanes 14.1 Introduction 361 14.2 Cellulose: Structure and Major Sources 362 14.3 Cellulose Nanofibers Fabricated by Electrospinning 364 14.3.1 Electrospinning Set-Up 364 14.3.2 Modified Electrospinning Processes 365 14.3.3 Electrospinnability of Cellulose and its Derivatives 366 14.4 Cellulose-Containing Nanocomposite Fabricated by Electrospinning 369 14.4.1 Electrospun Nanocomposites Reinforced with Nanocellulosic Materials 370 14.4.2 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Blends of Cellulose or its Derivatives with Nanoparticles 370 14.4.3 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose/Polymer Blends 373 14.4.4 Electrospun All-Cellulose Composites 374 14.5 Applications of Cellulose-Containing Electrospun Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering 375 14.6 Cellulose/Polymer Electrospun Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 379 14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives 382 Acknowledgments 382 References 382 15 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites for Environmental Applications 389 Ibrahim M. El-Sherbiny and Isra H. Ali 15.1 Introduction 389 15.1.1 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Origin 390 15.1.2 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Structure 390 15.1.3 Biopolymers as Promising Eco-Friendly Materials 390 15.2 Biopolymers: Chemistry and Properties 391 15.2.1 Polysaccharides 391 15.2.1.1 Starch 391 15.2.1.2 Cellulose 393 15.2.1.3 Chitin 395 15.2.2 Alginate 397 15.2.2.1 Origin 397 15.2.3 Proteins 398 15.2.3.1 Albumin 398 15.2.3.2 Collagen 398 15.2.3.3 Gelatin 399 15.2.3.4 Silk Proteins 399 15.2.3.5 Keratin 400 15.2.4 Microbial Polyesters 400 15.2.4.1 Polyhydroxylalkanoates 400 15.3 Preparation Techniques of Polymer Nanocomposites 400 15.3.1 Direct Compounding 400 15.3.2 In Situ Synthesis 401 15.3.3 Other Techniques 402 15.3.3.1 Electrospinning 403 15.3.3.2 Self-Assembly 403 15.3.3.3 Phase Separation 403 15.3.3.4 Template Synthesis 403 15.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites 403 15.5 Environmental Application of Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites 404 15.5.1 Pollutants Removal: Catalytic and Redox Degradation 404 15.5.1.1 Semiconductor Nanoparticles 405 15.5.1.2 Zero-Valent Metals Nanoparticles 405 15.5.1.3 Bimetallic Nanoparticles 406 15.5.2 Pollutants Removal: Adsorption 406 15.5.3 Pollutants Sensing 407 15.5.4 Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites in Green Chemistry 407 15.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects 409 References 409 16 Calcium Phosphate Nanocomposites for Biomedical and Dental Applications: Recent Developments 423 Andy H. Choi and Besim Ben-Nissan 16.1 Introduction 423 16.2 Hydroxyapatite 426 16.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Coatings 428 16.3.1 Collagen 428 16.3.2 Chitosan 429 16.3.3 Liposomes 430 16.3.4 Synthetic Polymers 430 16.4 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 431 16.4.1 Calcium Phosphate-Chitosan Nanocomposites 433 16.4.2 Calcium Phosphate-Collagen Nanocomposites 434 16.4.3 Calcium Phosphate-Silk Fibroin Nanocomposites 436 16.4.4 Calcium Phosphate-Cellulose Nanocomposites 437 16.4.5 Calcium Phosphate-Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites 437 16.5 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Drug Delivery 438 16.6 Concluding Remarks 443 References 444 17 Chitosan-Metal Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications 451 Vinod Saharan, Ajay Pal, Ramesh Raliya and Pratim Biswas 17.1 Introduction 451 17.2 Chitosan: A Promising Biopolymer 452 17.2.1 Degree of Deacetylation 453 17.2.2 Chitosan Depolymerization 453 17.3 Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 454 17.3.1 Synthesis of Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials 455 17.3.1.1 Ionic Gelation Method 455 17.4 Chitosan-Metal Nanocomposites 456 17.4.1 Chitosan-Zn Nanocomposite 456 17.4.2 Chitosan-Cu Nanocomposite 456 17.4.3 Application of Cu and Zn-Chitosan-Cu Nanocomposite 459 17.5 Other Natural Biopolymer in Comparison with Chitosan 461 17.6 Conclusion 462 References 462 18 Multicarboxyl-Functionalized Nanocellulose/Nanobentonite Composite for the Effective Removal and Recovery of Uranium (VI), Thorium (IV), and Cobalt (II) from Nuclear Industry Effluents and Sea Water 465 T.S. Anirudhan and J.R. Deepa 18.1 Introduction 465 18.2 Materials and Methods 468 18.2.1 Materials 468 18.2.2 Equipment and Methods of Characterization 468 18.2.3 Preparation of Adsorbent 468 18.2.4 Adsorption Experiments 469 18.2.5 Desorption Experiments 470 18.2.6 Grafting Density 470 18.2.7 Determination of Functional Groups 470 18.2.8 Point of Zero Charge 471 18.3 Results and Discussion 471 18.3.1 FTIR Analysis 471 18.3.2 XRD Analysis 473 18.3.3 Point of Zero Charge, Degree of Grafting, and -COOH Determination 474 18.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis 475 18.3.5 Effect of pH on Metal Ions Adsorption 475 18.3.6 Adsorption Kinetics 477 18.3.7 Adsorption Isotherm 479 18.3.8 Adsorption Thermodynamics 480 18.3.9 Reuse of the Adsorbent 481 18.3.10 Test of the Adsorbent with Nuclear Industry Wastewater and Sea Water 482 18.4 Conclusions 483 Acknowledgments 483 References 483
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