Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials
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portes grátis
Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials
Science and Fundamentals Nanocomposites
; ;
John Wiley & Sons Inc
06/2017
736
Dura
Inglês
9781119223818
15 a 20 dias
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Preface xxi 1 Preparation, Characterization, and Applications of Nanomaterials (Cellulose, Lignin, and Silica) from Renewable (Lignocellulosic) Resources 1 K.G. Satyanarayana, Anupama Rangan, V.S. Prasad and Washington Luiz Esteves Magalhaes 1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Cellulose and Nanocellulose 3 1.1.1.1 Types of Nanocellulose 5 1.1.2 Lignin and Nanolignin 7 1.1.3 Silica and Nanosilica 7 1.2 Preparation of Nanomaterials 10 1.2.1 Nanocellulose from Lignocellulosic Materials 10 1.2.1.1 Mechanical Shearing and Grinding 11 1.2.1.2 Steam Explosion/High-Pressure Homogenization 12 1.2.1.3 Chemical Methods (Acid Hydrolysis, Alkaline Treatment and Bleaching) 16 1.2.1.4 Ultrasonication 17 1.2.1.5 Other Methods 18 1.2.1.6 Functionalized Nanocellulose from Fibers 20 1.2.2 Nanolignin 21 1.2.2.1 Precipitation Method 22 1.2.2.2 Chemical Modification 22 1.2.2.3 Electro Spinning Followed by Surface Modification 22 1.2.2.4 Freeze Drying Followed by Thermal Stabilization and Carbonization 22 1.2.2.5 Supercritical Antisolvent Technology 23 1.2.2.6 Chemomechanical Methods 23 1.2.2.7 Nanolignin by Self-Assembly 23 1.2.2.8 Lignin Nanocontainers by Miniemulsion Method 23 1.2.2.9 Template-Mediated Synthesis 24 1.2.3 Nanosilica 25 1.2.3.1 Nanosilica Obtained from Plants 25 1.2.3.2 Enzymatic Crystallization of Amorphous Nanosilica 27 1.3 Characterization of Nanomaterials 27 1.3.1 Characterization of Nanocellulose 29 1.3.1.1 Structure and Morphology of NC 29 1.3.1.2 Physical Properties (Dimensions, Density, Electrical, Crystallinity, and Any Other) 33 1.3.1.3 Mechanical Properties 36 1.3.2 Characterization of Lignin Nanoparticles 37 1.3.2.1 Morphology of Lignin Nanoparticles 38 1.3.2.2 Thermal Analysis 39 1.3.3 Other Methods 39 1.3.4 Characterization of Nanosilica 39 1.4 Applications and Market Aspects 45 1.4.1 Nanocellulose 45 1.4.1.1 Biomedical Applications 46 1.4.1.2 Dielectric Materials 46 1.4.1.3 In Composite Manufacturing for Various Applications 46 1.4.1.4 Advanced Functional Materials 47 1.4.2 Nanolignin 49 1.4.3 Nanosilica 51 1.4.3.1 In Composites 51 1.4.3.2 Nanosilica in Nacre Composite 52 1.4.3.3 Encapsulation of Living Cells by Nanosilica 52 1.5 Concluding Remarks and Challenges Ahead 54 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 2 Hydrogels and its Nanocomposites from Renewable Resources: Biotechnological and Biomedical Applications 67 B. Manjula, A. Babul Reddy, T. Jayaramudu, E.R. Sadiku, S.J. Owonubi, Oluranti Agboola and Tauhami Mokrani 2.1 Introduction 67 2.2 Hydrogels from Renewable Resources 71 2.3 Hydrogel Technical Features 72 2.4 Nanocomposite Hydrogels 72 2.4.1 Polymer-Clay-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels 75 2.4.2 Poly(ethylene Oxide)-Silicate Nanocomposite Hydrogels 76 2.4.3 Poly(acryl Amide) and Poly(vinyl Alcohol)-Silicate-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels 77 2.5 Nanocomposite Hydrogels with Natural Polymers 79 2.6 Classifications of Hydrogels 80 2.7 Applications of Hydrogels as Biomaterials 82 2.7.1 Hydrogels for Drug Delivery Applications 82 2.7.2 Hydrogels for Tissue-Engineering Scaffolds 84 2.7.3 Hydrogels for Contact Lens 85 2.7.4 Hydrogels for Cell Encapsulation 85 2.7.5 Artificial Muscles and Nerve Regeneration 86 2.8 Conclusions 87 Acknowledgment 88 References 88 3 Preparation of Chitin-Based Nanocomposite Materials Through Gelation with Ionic Liquid 97 Kazuya Yamamoto and Jun-ichi Kadokawa 3.1 Introduction 98 3.2 Dissolution and Gelation of Chitin with Ionic Liquid 100 3.3 Fabrication of Self-Assembled Chitin Nanofibers by Regeneration from the Chitin Ion Gels 103 3.4 Preparation of Nanocomposite Materials from Chitin Nanofibers 104 3.5 Conclusion 114 References 115 4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites 121 Abbas Dadkhah Tehrani, Masoumeh Parsamanesh and Ali Bodaghi 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 Nanocomposites 122 4.3 Starch Structural Features 123 4.4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites 124 4.4.1 Starch Silicate Nanocomposites 125 4.4.2 Starch/Chitosan Composites 126 4.4.3 Starch Cellulose Nanocomposites 128 4.4.4 Starch Nanocomposites with Other Nanofillers 129 4.5 Starch Nanocrystal, Nanoparticle, and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods 131 4.5.1 Starch Nanocrystals Preparation by Acid Hydrolysis Method 131 4.5.2 Starch Nanocrystal Modification Methods 133 4.5.2.1 Starch Nanocrystals Chemical Modification by Molecules with Low Molecular Weight 133 4.5.2.2 Modification of Starch Nanocrystals via Surface Grafting of Polymers 133 4.5.3 Starch Nanoparticle and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods 135 4.6 Nano Starch as Fillers in Other Nanocomposites 140 4.7 Biomedical Application 143 4.8 Conclusion 144 References 145 5 Biorenewable Nanofiber and Nanocrystal: Renewable Nanomaterials for Constructing Novel Nanocomposites 155 Linxin Zhong and Xinwen Peng 5.1 Nanocellulose-Based and Nanocellulose-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels 156 5.1.1 Gelling Performances of Nanocelluloses 157 5.1.2 Nanocelluloses-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels 159 5.2 Nanocellulose-Based Aerogels 166 5.2.1 Preparation and Properties of Nanocellulose Aerogels 166 5.2.2 Nanocellulose-Polymer Composite Aerogels 171 5.2.3 Nanocellulose-Inorganic Nanocomposite Aerogels 176 5.2.4 Nanocellulose-Nanocarbon Hybrid Aerogels 179 5.3 Nanocellulose-Based Biomimetic and Conductive Nanocomposite Films 183 5.3.1 Nanocellulose-Polymer Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films 183 5.3.2 Nanocellulose-Inorganic Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films 187 5.3.3 Nanocellulose-Nanocarbon Conductive Nanocomposite Films 190 5.4 Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystal and its Nanocomposites with Unique Optical Properties 196 5.4.1 CNC Chiral Nematic Performances 196 5.4.2 CNC-Polymer Photonic Nanocomposites 199 5.4.3 CNC-Inorganic Photonic Nanocomposites 202 5.4.4 CNC-Templated Chiral Nematic Nanomaterials 204 5.5 Spun Fibers from Nanocelluloses 207 5.5.1 Spinning Performances of Nanocelluloses and Properties 207 5.5.2 Nanocellulose-Polymer Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers 210 5.5.3 Nanocellulose-Nanocarbons Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers 212 5.6 Summary and Outlook 213 References 215 6 Investigation of Wear Characteristics of Dental Composite Reinforced with Rice Husk-Derived Nanosilica Filler Particles 227 I.K. Bhat, Amar Patnaik and Shiv Ranjan Kumar 6.1 Introduction 227 6.2 Materials and Method 229 6.2.1 Synthesis of Nanosilica Powder 229 6.2.2 Materials and Fabrication Details 230 6.2.3 Determination of Hardness 230 6.2.4 Determination of Flexural Strength 231 6.2.5 Determination of Wear 231 6.2.6 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope 232 6.3 Results and Discussion 232 6.3.1 Effect of Vickers Hardness on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica 232 6.3.2 Effect of Flexural Strength on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica 233 6.3.3 Steady-State Condition for Wear Characterization in Food Slurry and Acidic Medium 233 6.3.3.1 Effect of Chewing Load on Volumetric Wear Rate on Dental Composite 233 6.3.3.2 Effect of Profile Speed on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite 235 6.3.3.3 Effect of Chamber Temperature on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite 236 6.3.4 Wear Analysis of Experimental Results by Taguchi Method and ANOVA Analysis 237 6.3.4.1 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Food Slurry Using Taguchi and ANOVA 237 6.3.4.2 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Citric Acid Using Taguchi and ANOVA 240 6.3.5 Surface Morphology of Worn Surfaces Under Food Slurry and Citric Acid Condition 241 6.3.6 Confirmation Experiment of Proposed Composites 243 6.4 Conclusions 244 Acknowledgments 245 Nomenclature 245 References 245 7 Performance of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites Fabricated via Ionic Liquid Based on Halloysites and Vermiculite 249 Nurbaiti Abdul Hanid, Mat Uzir Wahit and Qipeng Guo 7.1 Introduction 250 7.1.1 Overview 250 7.1.2 Cellulose Structure and Properties 250 7.1.3 Regenerated Cellulose 251 7.1.4 Conventional Solvent for Cellulose 251 7.1.5 Dissolution of Cellulose in NMMO 252 7.1.6 Cellulose Dissolution in Ionic Liquid 253 7.1.7 Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites 255 7.1.8 Halloysites 255 7.1.9 Vermiculite 255 7.2 Experimental 256 7.2.1 Materials 256 7.2.2 Sample Preparation 257 7.2.2.1 The Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose via Ionic Liquid 257 7.2.2.2 Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites via Ionic Liquids 257 7.2.3 Characterization of the Nanocomposites Films 257 7.3 Results and Discussions 258 7.3.1 XRD Patterns of RC Nanocomposites 258 7.3.2 FTIR Spectra of RC Nanocomposites 259 7.3.3 Mechanical Properties of RC Nanocomposites 261 7.3.4 Morphology Analysis of the RC Nanocomposites 263 7.3.4.1 Transmission Electron Micrographs Images Analysis 263 7.3.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy Images Analysis 264 7.3.5 Thermal Stability Analysis of RC Nanocomposites 265 7.3.6 Water Absorption of RC Nanocomposites 267 7.4 Conclusion 268 Acknowledgments 269 References 269 8 Preparation, Structure, Properties, and Interactions of the PVA/Cellulose Composites 275 Bai Huiyu 8.1 PVA and Cellulose 275 8.1.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol 275 8.1.1.1 Molecular Weight and the Degree of Alcoholysis 275 8.1.1.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of PVA 276 8.1.2 Cellulose 277 8.1.2.1 Structure and Chemistry of Cellulose 277 8.1.2.2 Source of Cellulose 278 8.1.2.3 The Particle Types of Cellulose 278 8.1.2.4 Properties of Cellulose 279 8.1.2.5 Application of Cellulose 280 8.1.3 PVA/Cellulose Composites 280 8.1.3.1 The Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites 280 8.1.3.2 Application of PVA/Cellulose Composites 281 8.2 The Bulk and Surface Modification of Cellulose Particles 281 8.2.1 The Bulk Modification of Cellulose Particles 281 8.2.1.1 Complex Modification 281 8.2.1.2 Graft Polymerization 282 8.2.2 The Surface Modification of Cellulose 283 8.2.2.1 Chemical Surface Modification 283 8.2.2.2 Physical Surface Modification 284 8.3 The Methods and Technology of Preparation of the PVA/Cellulose Composites 284 8.3.1 Solvent Casting 284 8.3.2 Melt Processing 285 8.3.3 Electrospun Fiber 285 8.3.4 In Situ Production 286 8.4 The Relationship between Structure and Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites 286 8.4.1 Interpenetrating Polymer Network 286 8.4.2 Hydrogen-Bonding or Bond Network 287 8.4.3 Chemical Cross-Linked Network 287 8.5 The Effect of the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose on Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites 288 8.5.1 Characterization Methods for the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose 288 8.5.1.1 Raman Spectroscopy 288 8.5.1.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 288 8.5.1.3 X-Ray Powder Diffraction 289 8.5.1.4 Fourier Transform Infrared 289 8.5.2 Interaction between PVA and Cellulose 290 8.5.2.1 Molecular Interactions 290 8.5.2.2 Covalent Interactions 290 8.5.2.3 Nucleation of Cellulose 290 8.6 Conclusions and Outlook 291 References 291 9 Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 299 Denis Mihaela Panaitescu, Adriana Nicoleta Frone and Ioana Chiulan 9.1 Introduction 299 9.2 A Short Overview on Nanosized Cellulose 300 9.3 General Aspects on Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 304 9.4 Green Composites from Biopolyamides and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 305 9.5 Green Composites from Polylactide and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 309 9.5.1 General Aspects 309 9.5.2 Processing Methods 310 9.5.2.1 Solution Casting 310 9.5.2.2 Melt Processing 311 9.5.2.3 Other Processing Techniques 314 9.5.3 Mechanical, Thermal, and Morphological Properties 314 9.5.4 Applications 318 9.6 Microbial Polyesters Nanocellulose Composites 319 9.6.1 PHAs Biosynthesis 319 9.6.2 General Overview on PHAs-Nanocellulose Composites 321 9.6.3 Processing Strategies for the Preparation of PHAs-Cellulose Nanocomposites 321 9.6.4 Morphological, Thermal, and Mechanical Characteristics of PHAs/Nanocellulose 323 9.6.5 Biodegradability and Biocompatibility 327 9.6.6 Applications 328 9.7 Conclusions 328 Acknowledgment 329 References 329 10 Biomass Composites from Bamboo-Based Micro/Nanofibers 339 Haruo Nishida, Keisaku Yamashiro and Takayuki Tsukegi 10.1 Introduction 339 10.2 Bamboo Microfiber and Microcomposites 340 10.2.1 Bamboo Fibrovascular Bundle Structure 340 10.2.2 Preparation Methods of Short Bamboo Microfiber 341 10.2.3 Preparation of sB F with Super-Heated Steam 342 10.2.3.1 SHS Treatment 342 10.2.3.2 Characterization Methods of sB F 342 10.2.3.3 Changes in Surface Morphology of SHS-Treated Bamboo 344 10.2.3.4 Changes in Chemical and Physical Properties of SHS-Treated Bamboo 345 10.2.3.5 Classification of sB F 348 10.2.4 Preparation of sB F/Plastic Microcomposites 349 10.2.4.1 Mechanical and Physical Properties of sB F/Plastic Microcomposites 349 10.2.4.2 Melt Processability of sB F/Plastic Microcomposites 350 10.2.4.3 Electrical Properties of sB F/Plastic Microcomposites 350 10.3 Bamboo Lignocellulosic Nanofiber and Nanocomposite 352 10.3.1 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Cellulose 352 10.3.2 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Lignocellulose 352 10.3.3 Reactive Processing for Nanofibrillation 353 10.3.4 Changes in Cellulose Crystalline Structure after Nanofibrillation 355 10.3.5 Preparation of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites 355 10.3.6 Properties of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites 356 10.4 Conclusions 357 References 358 11 Synthesis and Medicinal Properties of Polycarbonates and Resins from Renewable Sources 363 Selvaraj Mohana Roopan, T.V. Surendra and G. Madhumitha 11.1 Introduction 363 11.2 Synthesis 365 11.2.1 Chemical Synthesis of Polycarbonates 365 11.2.2 Synthesis of Polycarbonate from Eugenol 365 11.2.3 Synthesis of Renewable Bisphenols from 2,3-Pentanedione 366 11.2.4 Synthesis of Mesoporous PC-SiO2 367 11.2.5 Synthesis of Fluorinated Epoxy-Terminated Bisphenol A Polycarbonate (FBPA-PC EP) 367 11.2.6 Synthesis of Eugenol-Based Epoxy Resin (DEU-EP) 368 11.3 Polycarbonates from Renewable Resources 368 11.3.1 Ethylene from Biomass 368 11.3.2 Synthesis of Dianols via Microwave Degradation 369 11.3.3 Glycerol Carbonates from Recyclable Catalyst 369 11.3.4 Alternative to Phosgene for Aromatic Polycarbonate and Isocyanate Syntheses 370 11.3.5 Liquid-Phase Synthesis of Polycarbonate 371 11.4 Medicinal Properties 372 11.4.1 Polycarbonates in Drug Delivery 372 11.4.2 Polycarbonates in Gene Transformation 372 11.4.3 Cytotoxicity Test of Polycarbonates 373 11.4.4 Polycarbonates in Autoimmunity 374 11.4.5 Activation of Hyperprolactinemia and Immunostimulatory Response by Polycarbonates 375 11.5 Conclusion 376 References 376 12 Nanostructured Polymer Composites with Modified Carbon Nanotubes 381 A.P. Kharitonov, A.G. Tkachev, A.N. Blohin, I.V. Burakova, A.E. Burakov, A.E. Kucherova and A.A. Maksimkin 12.1 Introduction 382 12.1.1 Polymer Materials and Their Application 382 12.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes Application and Their Main Properties 387 12.2 Experimental Methods 390 12.2.1 Investigation of the CNTs Synthesis 390 12.2.2 CNTs Treatment 395 12.2.3 Composites Fabrication 395 12.2.4 Testing Procedures 395 12.3 Results and Discussion 396 12.3.1 FTIR Spectroscopy 396 12.3.2 Influence of Fluorination on the CNTs Specific Surface 396 12.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Study 396 12.3.4 TGA of Virgin and Fluorinated CNTs 397 12.3.5 SEM Data of Composites Fracture 397 12.3.6 TGA and DSC of Composites 401 12.3.7 Mechanical Properties of Composites 402 12.3.7.1 Tensile Strength 402 12.3.7.2 Flexural Strength 403 12.4 Conclusion 403 Acknowledgments 404 References 404 13 Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposites Derived from Polysaccharides: Challenges and Opportunities 409 Ana Barros-Timmons, Fabiane Oliveira and Jose A. Lopes-da-Silva 13.1 Introduction 409 13.2 Constituents 412 13.2.1 Polysaccharides 412 13.2.2 Inorganic Nanofillers 413 13.3 Preparation of Polysaccharide-Derived Nanocomposites 414 13.3.1 Surface Modification 414 13.3.2 Addition of Components 416 13.3.3 In Situ Preparation of Nanoparticles via Precursors 419 13.4 Processing 421 13.4.1 Plasticizers 422 13.4.2 Conventional Processing Methods to Prepare Inorganic-Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 422 13.4.3 Emerging Methods to Prepare Inorganic-Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 424 13.5 Trends and Perspectives 426 Acknowledgments 426 References 427 14 Natural Polymer-Based Nanocomposites: A Greener Approach for the Future 433 Prasanta Baishya, Moon Mandal, Pankaj Gogoi and Tarun K. Maji 14.1 Introduction 433 14.2 Wood Polymer Nanocomposite 435 14.3 Basic Components of Wood Polymer Nanocomposite 436 14.4 Natural Polymer/Raw Material Used in Preparation of WPNC 436 14.4.1 Starch 436 14.4.2 Gluten 437 14.4.3 Chitosan 438 14.4.4 Vegetable Oil 439 14.4.4.1 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oil 440 14.5 Wood 442 14.6 Cross-Linker 443 14.7 Modification of Natural Polymers 443 14.7.1 Grafting of Starch 443 14.7.2 Modification of Starch by Other Methods 444 14.7.3 Plasticizer 445 14.7.4 Nano-Reinforcing Agents 446 14.7.4.1 Montmorillonite 446 14.7.4.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 447 14.7.4.3 Carbon Nanotubes 448 14.7.4.4 Nanocellulose 448 14.8 Properties of Natural Polymer-Based Composites 449 14.8.1 Mechanical Properties 449 14.8.2 Thermal Properties 450 14.8.3 Water Uptake and Dimensional Stability 450 14.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects 451 References 452 15 Cellulose Whisker-Based Green Polymer Composites 461 Silviya Elanthikkal, Tania Francis, C. Sangeetha and G. Unnikrishnan 15.1 Cellulose: Discovery, Sources, and Microstructure 462 15.1.1 Sources of Cellulose 462 15.1.2 Microstructure of Cellulose 463 15.2 Nanocellulose 466 15.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis 467 15.2.2 Mechanical Processes 470 15.2.3 TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation 471 15.2.4 Steam Explosion Method 472 15.2.5 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 473 15.2.6 Hydrolysis with Gaseous Acid 474 15.2.7 Treatment with Ionic Liquid 474 15.3 Polymer Composites 475 15.3.1 Polymer Composite Fabrication Techniques 476 15.3.1.1 Casting Evaporation Technique 476 15.3.1.2 Extrusion 476 15.3.1.3 Compression Molding 477 15.3.1.4 Injection Molding 478 15.3.2 Cellulose Whisker Composites: Literature-Based Discussion 478 15.3.2.1 Latex-Based Composites 478 15.3.2.2 Polar Polymer-Based Composites 479 15.3.2.3 Nonpolar Polymer-Based Composites 479 15.4 Applications of Cellulose Whisker Composites 483 15.4.1 Packaging 484 15.4.2 Automotive and Toys 484 15.4.3 Electronics 484 15.4.4 Biomedical Applications 485 References 486 16 Poly(Lactic Acid) Nanocomposites Reinforced with Different Additives 495 Ravi Babu Valapa, G. Pugazhenthi and Vimal Katiyar 16.1 Introduction 495 16.2 Biopolymers 497 16.2.1 Classification of Biopolymers 497 16.3 PLA Nanocomposites 502 16.3.1 PLA-Clay Nanocomposites 502 16.3.2 PLA-Carbonaceous Nanocomposites 507 16.3.3 PLA-Bio Filler Composites 510 16.3.4 PLA-Silica Nanocomposites 516 16.4 Summary 516 References 516 17 Nanocrystalline Cellulose: Green, Multifunctional and Sustainable Nanomaterials 523 Samira Bagheri, Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli and Negar Mansouri 17.1 Introduction: Natural Based Products 523 17.2 Nanocellulose 524 17.2.1 Nanocellulose: Properties 524 17.2.1.1 Nanocellulose: Mechanical Properties 526 17.2.1.2 Nanocellulose: Physical Properties 526 17.2.1.3 Nanocellulose: Surface Chemistry Properties 529 17.2.2 Nanocellulose: Synthesis Process 529 17.2.2.1 Conventional Acid Hydrolysis Process 529 17.2.3 Nanocellulose: Limitations 530 17.2.3.1 Single Particles Dispersion 530 17.2.3.2 Barrier Properties 530 17.2.3.3 Permeability Properties 531 17.3 Nanocellulose: Chemical Functionalization 531 17.3.1 Organic Compounds Functionalization 532 17.3.1.1 Molecular Functionalization 532 17.3.1.2 Macromolecular Functionalization 536 17.3.2 Nanocellulose: Inorganic Compounds Functionalization 539 17.3.2.1 Nanocellulose-Titanium Oxide Functionalization 539 17.3.2.2 Nanocellulose-Fluorine Functionalization 539 17.3.2.3 Nanocellulose-Gold Functionalization 540 17.3.2.4 Nanocellulose-Silver Functionalization 540 17.3.2.5 Nanocellulose-Pd Functionalization 540 17.3.2.6 Nanocellulose-CdS Functionalization 541 17.4 Applications of Functionalized Nanocellulose 541 17.4.1 Wastewater Treatment 541 17.4.2 Biomedical Applications 542 17.4.3 Biosensor and Bioimaging 542 17.4.4 Catalysis 543 17.5 Conclusion 543 Acknowledgment 544 References 544 18 Halloysite-Based Bionanocomposites 557 Giuseppe Lazzara, Marina Massaro, Stefana Milioto and Serena Riela 18.1 Introduction 557 18.2 Biodegradable Polymers 559 18.2.1 Cellulose 559 18.2.2 Chitosan 560 18.2.3 Starch 561 18.2.4 Alginate 562 18.2.5 Pectin 562 18.3 Natural Inorganic Filler: Halloysite Nanotubes 563 18.3.1 Functionalization of HNTs 565 18.3.1.1 Functionalization of External Surface 565 18.3.1.2 Functionalization of the Lumen 567 18.3.2 Composites Structured with Halloysite 568 18.4 Bionanocomposites 569 18.4.1 HNT-Biopolymer Nanocomposite Formation 569 18.4.2 Properties of HNTs-Biopolymer Nanocomposites 570 18.4.2.1 Bionanocomposites Surface Morphology 571 18.4.2.2 Bionanocomposites Mechanical and Thermal Response 573 18.5 Applications of HNT/Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 576 18.6 Conclusions 578 References 579 19 Nanostructurated Composites Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Silver Nanoparticles 585 Oana Fuf?, George Mihail Vl?sceanu, Georgiana Dolete, Daniela Cabuzu, Rebecca Alexandra Puiu, Andreea Cirj?, Bogdan Nicoar? and Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu 19.1 Introduction 585 19.2 Silver Nanoparticles 586 19.3 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles 588 19.4 Silver Nanoparticle Composites 594 19.4.1 In situ and ex situ Strategies for AgNPs-Based Composites with Polymer Matrix 594 19.4.2 Other AgNPs Composites 599 19.5 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles Composites 600 19.5.1 Active Substance Delivery Composites 600 19.5.2 Antimicrobial Composites 603 19.6 Conclusions and Future Prospectives 607 Acknowledgments 608 References 608 20 Starch-Based Biomaterials and Nanocomposites 623 Arantzazu Valdes and Maria Carmen Garrigos 20.1 Introduction 623 20.2 Starch: Structure and Characteristics 625 20.3 Applicability of Starch in Food Industry 627 20.3.1 Starch Biomaterials: Films, Coatings, and Blends 629 20.3.2 Reinforced Materials 631 20.3.3 Starch Nanoparticles 632 20.4 Conclusion 632 References 633 21 Green Nanocomposites-Based on PLA and Natural Organic Fillers 637 Roberto Scaffaro, Luigi Botta, Francesco Lopresti, Andrea Maio and Fiorenza Sutera 21.1 Introduction 637 21.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 638 21.3 Natural Organic Nanofillers 640 21.3.1 Cellulose 641 21.3.1.1 Main Derivatization Methods Used to Increase Cellulose Affinity to PLA 643 21.3.2 Chitin 645 21.3.3 Starch 646 21.4 Bionanocomposites Based on PLA 648 21.4.1 PLA/cellulose Nanocomposites 648 21.4.1.1 Preparation 648 21.4.1.2 Properties 651 21.4.1.3 Degradation 653 21.4.2 PLA/chitin Nanocomposites 654 21.4.2.1 Preparation 654 21.4.2.2 Properties 655 21.4.3 PLA/starch Nanocomposites 656 21.4.3.1 Preparation 656 21.4.3.2 Properties 657 21.5 Conclusions 659 References 659 22 Chitin and Chitosan-Based (NANO) Composites 671 Andre R. Fajardo, Antonio G. B. Pereira, Alessandro F. Martins, Alexandre T. Paulino, Edvani C. Muniz and You-Lo Hsieh 22.1 Introduction 672 22.1.1 Chitin 672 22.1.2 Chitosan 673 22.2 Chitin and Chitosan Properties and Processing 674 22.3 Preparation and Characterization of Ct and Cs Composites: An Overview 675 22.4 Ct- and Cs-Metal Composites 679 22.5 Ct and Cs-Inorganic Composites 685 22.5.1 Food Packaging 685 22.5.2 Membranes 685 22.5.3 Biomedical Uses 685 22.5.4 Environmental Remediation 686 22.6 Composites Based on Ct and Cs Whiskers 687 22.7 Overview, Perspectives, and Conclusion 690 References 691 Index 701
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Preface xxi 1 Preparation, Characterization, and Applications of Nanomaterials (Cellulose, Lignin, and Silica) from Renewable (Lignocellulosic) Resources 1 K.G. Satyanarayana, Anupama Rangan, V.S. Prasad and Washington Luiz Esteves Magalhaes 1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Cellulose and Nanocellulose 3 1.1.1.1 Types of Nanocellulose 5 1.1.2 Lignin and Nanolignin 7 1.1.3 Silica and Nanosilica 7 1.2 Preparation of Nanomaterials 10 1.2.1 Nanocellulose from Lignocellulosic Materials 10 1.2.1.1 Mechanical Shearing and Grinding 11 1.2.1.2 Steam Explosion/High-Pressure Homogenization 12 1.2.1.3 Chemical Methods (Acid Hydrolysis, Alkaline Treatment and Bleaching) 16 1.2.1.4 Ultrasonication 17 1.2.1.5 Other Methods 18 1.2.1.6 Functionalized Nanocellulose from Fibers 20 1.2.2 Nanolignin 21 1.2.2.1 Precipitation Method 22 1.2.2.2 Chemical Modification 22 1.2.2.3 Electro Spinning Followed by Surface Modification 22 1.2.2.4 Freeze Drying Followed by Thermal Stabilization and Carbonization 22 1.2.2.5 Supercritical Antisolvent Technology 23 1.2.2.6 Chemomechanical Methods 23 1.2.2.7 Nanolignin by Self-Assembly 23 1.2.2.8 Lignin Nanocontainers by Miniemulsion Method 23 1.2.2.9 Template-Mediated Synthesis 24 1.2.3 Nanosilica 25 1.2.3.1 Nanosilica Obtained from Plants 25 1.2.3.2 Enzymatic Crystallization of Amorphous Nanosilica 27 1.3 Characterization of Nanomaterials 27 1.3.1 Characterization of Nanocellulose 29 1.3.1.1 Structure and Morphology of NC 29 1.3.1.2 Physical Properties (Dimensions, Density, Electrical, Crystallinity, and Any Other) 33 1.3.1.3 Mechanical Properties 36 1.3.2 Characterization of Lignin Nanoparticles 37 1.3.2.1 Morphology of Lignin Nanoparticles 38 1.3.2.2 Thermal Analysis 39 1.3.3 Other Methods 39 1.3.4 Characterization of Nanosilica 39 1.4 Applications and Market Aspects 45 1.4.1 Nanocellulose 45 1.4.1.1 Biomedical Applications 46 1.4.1.2 Dielectric Materials 46 1.4.1.3 In Composite Manufacturing for Various Applications 46 1.4.1.4 Advanced Functional Materials 47 1.4.2 Nanolignin 49 1.4.3 Nanosilica 51 1.4.3.1 In Composites 51 1.4.3.2 Nanosilica in Nacre Composite 52 1.4.3.3 Encapsulation of Living Cells by Nanosilica 52 1.5 Concluding Remarks and Challenges Ahead 54 Acknowledgments 55 References 55 2 Hydrogels and its Nanocomposites from Renewable Resources: Biotechnological and Biomedical Applications 67 B. Manjula, A. Babul Reddy, T. Jayaramudu, E.R. Sadiku, S.J. Owonubi, Oluranti Agboola and Tauhami Mokrani 2.1 Introduction 67 2.2 Hydrogels from Renewable Resources 71 2.3 Hydrogel Technical Features 72 2.4 Nanocomposite Hydrogels 72 2.4.1 Polymer-Clay-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels 75 2.4.2 Poly(ethylene Oxide)-Silicate Nanocomposite Hydrogels 76 2.4.3 Poly(acryl Amide) and Poly(vinyl Alcohol)-Silicate-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels 77 2.5 Nanocomposite Hydrogels with Natural Polymers 79 2.6 Classifications of Hydrogels 80 2.7 Applications of Hydrogels as Biomaterials 82 2.7.1 Hydrogels for Drug Delivery Applications 82 2.7.2 Hydrogels for Tissue-Engineering Scaffolds 84 2.7.3 Hydrogels for Contact Lens 85 2.7.4 Hydrogels for Cell Encapsulation 85 2.7.5 Artificial Muscles and Nerve Regeneration 86 2.8 Conclusions 87 Acknowledgment 88 References 88 3 Preparation of Chitin-Based Nanocomposite Materials Through Gelation with Ionic Liquid 97 Kazuya Yamamoto and Jun-ichi Kadokawa 3.1 Introduction 98 3.2 Dissolution and Gelation of Chitin with Ionic Liquid 100 3.3 Fabrication of Self-Assembled Chitin Nanofibers by Regeneration from the Chitin Ion Gels 103 3.4 Preparation of Nanocomposite Materials from Chitin Nanofibers 104 3.5 Conclusion 114 References 115 4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites 121 Abbas Dadkhah Tehrani, Masoumeh Parsamanesh and Ali Bodaghi 4.1 Introduction 121 4.2 Nanocomposites 122 4.3 Starch Structural Features 123 4.4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites 124 4.4.1 Starch Silicate Nanocomposites 125 4.4.2 Starch/Chitosan Composites 126 4.4.3 Starch Cellulose Nanocomposites 128 4.4.4 Starch Nanocomposites with Other Nanofillers 129 4.5 Starch Nanocrystal, Nanoparticle, and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods 131 4.5.1 Starch Nanocrystals Preparation by Acid Hydrolysis Method 131 4.5.2 Starch Nanocrystal Modification Methods 133 4.5.2.1 Starch Nanocrystals Chemical Modification by Molecules with Low Molecular Weight 133 4.5.2.2 Modification of Starch Nanocrystals via Surface Grafting of Polymers 133 4.5.3 Starch Nanoparticle and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods 135 4.6 Nano Starch as Fillers in Other Nanocomposites 140 4.7 Biomedical Application 143 4.8 Conclusion 144 References 145 5 Biorenewable Nanofiber and Nanocrystal: Renewable Nanomaterials for Constructing Novel Nanocomposites 155 Linxin Zhong and Xinwen Peng 5.1 Nanocellulose-Based and Nanocellulose-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels 156 5.1.1 Gelling Performances of Nanocelluloses 157 5.1.2 Nanocelluloses-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels 159 5.2 Nanocellulose-Based Aerogels 166 5.2.1 Preparation and Properties of Nanocellulose Aerogels 166 5.2.2 Nanocellulose-Polymer Composite Aerogels 171 5.2.3 Nanocellulose-Inorganic Nanocomposite Aerogels 176 5.2.4 Nanocellulose-Nanocarbon Hybrid Aerogels 179 5.3 Nanocellulose-Based Biomimetic and Conductive Nanocomposite Films 183 5.3.1 Nanocellulose-Polymer Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films 183 5.3.2 Nanocellulose-Inorganic Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films 187 5.3.3 Nanocellulose-Nanocarbon Conductive Nanocomposite Films 190 5.4 Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystal and its Nanocomposites with Unique Optical Properties 196 5.4.1 CNC Chiral Nematic Performances 196 5.4.2 CNC-Polymer Photonic Nanocomposites 199 5.4.3 CNC-Inorganic Photonic Nanocomposites 202 5.4.4 CNC-Templated Chiral Nematic Nanomaterials 204 5.5 Spun Fibers from Nanocelluloses 207 5.5.1 Spinning Performances of Nanocelluloses and Properties 207 5.5.2 Nanocellulose-Polymer Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers 210 5.5.3 Nanocellulose-Nanocarbons Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers 212 5.6 Summary and Outlook 213 References 215 6 Investigation of Wear Characteristics of Dental Composite Reinforced with Rice Husk-Derived Nanosilica Filler Particles 227 I.K. Bhat, Amar Patnaik and Shiv Ranjan Kumar 6.1 Introduction 227 6.2 Materials and Method 229 6.2.1 Synthesis of Nanosilica Powder 229 6.2.2 Materials and Fabrication Details 230 6.2.3 Determination of Hardness 230 6.2.4 Determination of Flexural Strength 231 6.2.5 Determination of Wear 231 6.2.6 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope 232 6.3 Results and Discussion 232 6.3.1 Effect of Vickers Hardness on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica 232 6.3.2 Effect of Flexural Strength on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica 233 6.3.3 Steady-State Condition for Wear Characterization in Food Slurry and Acidic Medium 233 6.3.3.1 Effect of Chewing Load on Volumetric Wear Rate on Dental Composite 233 6.3.3.2 Effect of Profile Speed on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite 235 6.3.3.3 Effect of Chamber Temperature on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite 236 6.3.4 Wear Analysis of Experimental Results by Taguchi Method and ANOVA Analysis 237 6.3.4.1 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Food Slurry Using Taguchi and ANOVA 237 6.3.4.2 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Citric Acid Using Taguchi and ANOVA 240 6.3.5 Surface Morphology of Worn Surfaces Under Food Slurry and Citric Acid Condition 241 6.3.6 Confirmation Experiment of Proposed Composites 243 6.4 Conclusions 244 Acknowledgments 245 Nomenclature 245 References 245 7 Performance of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites Fabricated via Ionic Liquid Based on Halloysites and Vermiculite 249 Nurbaiti Abdul Hanid, Mat Uzir Wahit and Qipeng Guo 7.1 Introduction 250 7.1.1 Overview 250 7.1.2 Cellulose Structure and Properties 250 7.1.3 Regenerated Cellulose 251 7.1.4 Conventional Solvent for Cellulose 251 7.1.5 Dissolution of Cellulose in NMMO 252 7.1.6 Cellulose Dissolution in Ionic Liquid 253 7.1.7 Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites 255 7.1.8 Halloysites 255 7.1.9 Vermiculite 255 7.2 Experimental 256 7.2.1 Materials 256 7.2.2 Sample Preparation 257 7.2.2.1 The Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose via Ionic Liquid 257 7.2.2.2 Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites via Ionic Liquids 257 7.2.3 Characterization of the Nanocomposites Films 257 7.3 Results and Discussions 258 7.3.1 XRD Patterns of RC Nanocomposites 258 7.3.2 FTIR Spectra of RC Nanocomposites 259 7.3.3 Mechanical Properties of RC Nanocomposites 261 7.3.4 Morphology Analysis of the RC Nanocomposites 263 7.3.4.1 Transmission Electron Micrographs Images Analysis 263 7.3.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy Images Analysis 264 7.3.5 Thermal Stability Analysis of RC Nanocomposites 265 7.3.6 Water Absorption of RC Nanocomposites 267 7.4 Conclusion 268 Acknowledgments 269 References 269 8 Preparation, Structure, Properties, and Interactions of the PVA/Cellulose Composites 275 Bai Huiyu 8.1 PVA and Cellulose 275 8.1.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol 275 8.1.1.1 Molecular Weight and the Degree of Alcoholysis 275 8.1.1.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of PVA 276 8.1.2 Cellulose 277 8.1.2.1 Structure and Chemistry of Cellulose 277 8.1.2.2 Source of Cellulose 278 8.1.2.3 The Particle Types of Cellulose 278 8.1.2.4 Properties of Cellulose 279 8.1.2.5 Application of Cellulose 280 8.1.3 PVA/Cellulose Composites 280 8.1.3.1 The Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites 280 8.1.3.2 Application of PVA/Cellulose Composites 281 8.2 The Bulk and Surface Modification of Cellulose Particles 281 8.2.1 The Bulk Modification of Cellulose Particles 281 8.2.1.1 Complex Modification 281 8.2.1.2 Graft Polymerization 282 8.2.2 The Surface Modification of Cellulose 283 8.2.2.1 Chemical Surface Modification 283 8.2.2.2 Physical Surface Modification 284 8.3 The Methods and Technology of Preparation of the PVA/Cellulose Composites 284 8.3.1 Solvent Casting 284 8.3.2 Melt Processing 285 8.3.3 Electrospun Fiber 285 8.3.4 In Situ Production 286 8.4 The Relationship between Structure and Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites 286 8.4.1 Interpenetrating Polymer Network 286 8.4.2 Hydrogen-Bonding or Bond Network 287 8.4.3 Chemical Cross-Linked Network 287 8.5 The Effect of the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose on Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites 288 8.5.1 Characterization Methods for the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose 288 8.5.1.1 Raman Spectroscopy 288 8.5.1.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry 288 8.5.1.3 X-Ray Powder Diffraction 289 8.5.1.4 Fourier Transform Infrared 289 8.5.2 Interaction between PVA and Cellulose 290 8.5.2.1 Molecular Interactions 290 8.5.2.2 Covalent Interactions 290 8.5.2.3 Nucleation of Cellulose 290 8.6 Conclusions and Outlook 291 References 291 9 Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 299 Denis Mihaela Panaitescu, Adriana Nicoleta Frone and Ioana Chiulan 9.1 Introduction 299 9.2 A Short Overview on Nanosized Cellulose 300 9.3 General Aspects on Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 304 9.4 Green Composites from Biopolyamides and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 305 9.5 Green Composites from Polylactide and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements 309 9.5.1 General Aspects 309 9.5.2 Processing Methods 310 9.5.2.1 Solution Casting 310 9.5.2.2 Melt Processing 311 9.5.2.3 Other Processing Techniques 314 9.5.3 Mechanical, Thermal, and Morphological Properties 314 9.5.4 Applications 318 9.6 Microbial Polyesters Nanocellulose Composites 319 9.6.1 PHAs Biosynthesis 319 9.6.2 General Overview on PHAs-Nanocellulose Composites 321 9.6.3 Processing Strategies for the Preparation of PHAs-Cellulose Nanocomposites 321 9.6.4 Morphological, Thermal, and Mechanical Characteristics of PHAs/Nanocellulose 323 9.6.5 Biodegradability and Biocompatibility 327 9.6.6 Applications 328 9.7 Conclusions 328 Acknowledgment 329 References 329 10 Biomass Composites from Bamboo-Based Micro/Nanofibers 339 Haruo Nishida, Keisaku Yamashiro and Takayuki Tsukegi 10.1 Introduction 339 10.2 Bamboo Microfiber and Microcomposites 340 10.2.1 Bamboo Fibrovascular Bundle Structure 340 10.2.2 Preparation Methods of Short Bamboo Microfiber 341 10.2.3 Preparation of sB F with Super-Heated Steam 342 10.2.3.1 SHS Treatment 342 10.2.3.2 Characterization Methods of sB F 342 10.2.3.3 Changes in Surface Morphology of SHS-Treated Bamboo 344 10.2.3.4 Changes in Chemical and Physical Properties of SHS-Treated Bamboo 345 10.2.3.5 Classification of sB F 348 10.2.4 Preparation of sB F/Plastic Microcomposites 349 10.2.4.1 Mechanical and Physical Properties of sB F/Plastic Microcomposites 349 10.2.4.2 Melt Processability of sB F/Plastic Microcomposites 350 10.2.4.3 Electrical Properties of sB F/Plastic Microcomposites 350 10.3 Bamboo Lignocellulosic Nanofiber and Nanocomposite 352 10.3.1 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Cellulose 352 10.3.2 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Lignocellulose 352 10.3.3 Reactive Processing for Nanofibrillation 353 10.3.4 Changes in Cellulose Crystalline Structure after Nanofibrillation 355 10.3.5 Preparation of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites 355 10.3.6 Properties of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites 356 10.4 Conclusions 357 References 358 11 Synthesis and Medicinal Properties of Polycarbonates and Resins from Renewable Sources 363 Selvaraj Mohana Roopan, T.V. Surendra and G. Madhumitha 11.1 Introduction 363 11.2 Synthesis 365 11.2.1 Chemical Synthesis of Polycarbonates 365 11.2.2 Synthesis of Polycarbonate from Eugenol 365 11.2.3 Synthesis of Renewable Bisphenols from 2,3-Pentanedione 366 11.2.4 Synthesis of Mesoporous PC-SiO2 367 11.2.5 Synthesis of Fluorinated Epoxy-Terminated Bisphenol A Polycarbonate (FBPA-PC EP) 367 11.2.6 Synthesis of Eugenol-Based Epoxy Resin (DEU-EP) 368 11.3 Polycarbonates from Renewable Resources 368 11.3.1 Ethylene from Biomass 368 11.3.2 Synthesis of Dianols via Microwave Degradation 369 11.3.3 Glycerol Carbonates from Recyclable Catalyst 369 11.3.4 Alternative to Phosgene for Aromatic Polycarbonate and Isocyanate Syntheses 370 11.3.5 Liquid-Phase Synthesis of Polycarbonate 371 11.4 Medicinal Properties 372 11.4.1 Polycarbonates in Drug Delivery 372 11.4.2 Polycarbonates in Gene Transformation 372 11.4.3 Cytotoxicity Test of Polycarbonates 373 11.4.4 Polycarbonates in Autoimmunity 374 11.4.5 Activation of Hyperprolactinemia and Immunostimulatory Response by Polycarbonates 375 11.5 Conclusion 376 References 376 12 Nanostructured Polymer Composites with Modified Carbon Nanotubes 381 A.P. Kharitonov, A.G. Tkachev, A.N. Blohin, I.V. Burakova, A.E. Burakov, A.E. Kucherova and A.A. Maksimkin 12.1 Introduction 382 12.1.1 Polymer Materials and Their Application 382 12.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes Application and Their Main Properties 387 12.2 Experimental Methods 390 12.2.1 Investigation of the CNTs Synthesis 390 12.2.2 CNTs Treatment 395 12.2.3 Composites Fabrication 395 12.2.4 Testing Procedures 395 12.3 Results and Discussion 396 12.3.1 FTIR Spectroscopy 396 12.3.2 Influence of Fluorination on the CNTs Specific Surface 396 12.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Study 396 12.3.4 TGA of Virgin and Fluorinated CNTs 397 12.3.5 SEM Data of Composites Fracture 397 12.3.6 TGA and DSC of Composites 401 12.3.7 Mechanical Properties of Composites 402 12.3.7.1 Tensile Strength 402 12.3.7.2 Flexural Strength 403 12.4 Conclusion 403 Acknowledgments 404 References 404 13 Organic-Inorganic Nanocomposites Derived from Polysaccharides: Challenges and Opportunities 409 Ana Barros-Timmons, Fabiane Oliveira and Jose A. Lopes-da-Silva 13.1 Introduction 409 13.2 Constituents 412 13.2.1 Polysaccharides 412 13.2.2 Inorganic Nanofillers 413 13.3 Preparation of Polysaccharide-Derived Nanocomposites 414 13.3.1 Surface Modification 414 13.3.2 Addition of Components 416 13.3.3 In Situ Preparation of Nanoparticles via Precursors 419 13.4 Processing 421 13.4.1 Plasticizers 422 13.4.2 Conventional Processing Methods to Prepare Inorganic-Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 422 13.4.3 Emerging Methods to Prepare Inorganic-Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 424 13.5 Trends and Perspectives 426 Acknowledgments 426 References 427 14 Natural Polymer-Based Nanocomposites: A Greener Approach for the Future 433 Prasanta Baishya, Moon Mandal, Pankaj Gogoi and Tarun K. Maji 14.1 Introduction 433 14.2 Wood Polymer Nanocomposite 435 14.3 Basic Components of Wood Polymer Nanocomposite 436 14.4 Natural Polymer/Raw Material Used in Preparation of WPNC 436 14.4.1 Starch 436 14.4.2 Gluten 437 14.4.3 Chitosan 438 14.4.4 Vegetable Oil 439 14.4.4.1 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oil 440 14.5 Wood 442 14.6 Cross-Linker 443 14.7 Modification of Natural Polymers 443 14.7.1 Grafting of Starch 443 14.7.2 Modification of Starch by Other Methods 444 14.7.3 Plasticizer 445 14.7.4 Nano-Reinforcing Agents 446 14.7.4.1 Montmorillonite 446 14.7.4.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 447 14.7.4.3 Carbon Nanotubes 448 14.7.4.4 Nanocellulose 448 14.8 Properties of Natural Polymer-Based Composites 449 14.8.1 Mechanical Properties 449 14.8.2 Thermal Properties 450 14.8.3 Water Uptake and Dimensional Stability 450 14.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects 451 References 452 15 Cellulose Whisker-Based Green Polymer Composites 461 Silviya Elanthikkal, Tania Francis, C. Sangeetha and G. Unnikrishnan 15.1 Cellulose: Discovery, Sources, and Microstructure 462 15.1.1 Sources of Cellulose 462 15.1.2 Microstructure of Cellulose 463 15.2 Nanocellulose 466 15.2.1 Acid Hydrolysis 467 15.2.2 Mechanical Processes 470 15.2.3 TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation 471 15.2.4 Steam Explosion Method 472 15.2.5 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 473 15.2.6 Hydrolysis with Gaseous Acid 474 15.2.7 Treatment with Ionic Liquid 474 15.3 Polymer Composites 475 15.3.1 Polymer Composite Fabrication Techniques 476 15.3.1.1 Casting Evaporation Technique 476 15.3.1.2 Extrusion 476 15.3.1.3 Compression Molding 477 15.3.1.4 Injection Molding 478 15.3.2 Cellulose Whisker Composites: Literature-Based Discussion 478 15.3.2.1 Latex-Based Composites 478 15.3.2.2 Polar Polymer-Based Composites 479 15.3.2.3 Nonpolar Polymer-Based Composites 479 15.4 Applications of Cellulose Whisker Composites 483 15.4.1 Packaging 484 15.4.2 Automotive and Toys 484 15.4.3 Electronics 484 15.4.4 Biomedical Applications 485 References 486 16 Poly(Lactic Acid) Nanocomposites Reinforced with Different Additives 495 Ravi Babu Valapa, G. Pugazhenthi and Vimal Katiyar 16.1 Introduction 495 16.2 Biopolymers 497 16.2.1 Classification of Biopolymers 497 16.3 PLA Nanocomposites 502 16.3.1 PLA-Clay Nanocomposites 502 16.3.2 PLA-Carbonaceous Nanocomposites 507 16.3.3 PLA-Bio Filler Composites 510 16.3.4 PLA-Silica Nanocomposites 516 16.4 Summary 516 References 516 17 Nanocrystalline Cellulose: Green, Multifunctional and Sustainable Nanomaterials 523 Samira Bagheri, Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli and Negar Mansouri 17.1 Introduction: Natural Based Products 523 17.2 Nanocellulose 524 17.2.1 Nanocellulose: Properties 524 17.2.1.1 Nanocellulose: Mechanical Properties 526 17.2.1.2 Nanocellulose: Physical Properties 526 17.2.1.3 Nanocellulose: Surface Chemistry Properties 529 17.2.2 Nanocellulose: Synthesis Process 529 17.2.2.1 Conventional Acid Hydrolysis Process 529 17.2.3 Nanocellulose: Limitations 530 17.2.3.1 Single Particles Dispersion 530 17.2.3.2 Barrier Properties 530 17.2.3.3 Permeability Properties 531 17.3 Nanocellulose: Chemical Functionalization 531 17.3.1 Organic Compounds Functionalization 532 17.3.1.1 Molecular Functionalization 532 17.3.1.2 Macromolecular Functionalization 536 17.3.2 Nanocellulose: Inorganic Compounds Functionalization 539 17.3.2.1 Nanocellulose-Titanium Oxide Functionalization 539 17.3.2.2 Nanocellulose-Fluorine Functionalization 539 17.3.2.3 Nanocellulose-Gold Functionalization 540 17.3.2.4 Nanocellulose-Silver Functionalization 540 17.3.2.5 Nanocellulose-Pd Functionalization 540 17.3.2.6 Nanocellulose-CdS Functionalization 541 17.4 Applications of Functionalized Nanocellulose 541 17.4.1 Wastewater Treatment 541 17.4.2 Biomedical Applications 542 17.4.3 Biosensor and Bioimaging 542 17.4.4 Catalysis 543 17.5 Conclusion 543 Acknowledgment 544 References 544 18 Halloysite-Based Bionanocomposites 557 Giuseppe Lazzara, Marina Massaro, Stefana Milioto and Serena Riela 18.1 Introduction 557 18.2 Biodegradable Polymers 559 18.2.1 Cellulose 559 18.2.2 Chitosan 560 18.2.3 Starch 561 18.2.4 Alginate 562 18.2.5 Pectin 562 18.3 Natural Inorganic Filler: Halloysite Nanotubes 563 18.3.1 Functionalization of HNTs 565 18.3.1.1 Functionalization of External Surface 565 18.3.1.2 Functionalization of the Lumen 567 18.3.2 Composites Structured with Halloysite 568 18.4 Bionanocomposites 569 18.4.1 HNT-Biopolymer Nanocomposite Formation 569 18.4.2 Properties of HNTs-Biopolymer Nanocomposites 570 18.4.2.1 Bionanocomposites Surface Morphology 571 18.4.2.2 Bionanocomposites Mechanical and Thermal Response 573 18.5 Applications of HNT/Polysaccharide Nanocomposites 576 18.6 Conclusions 578 References 579 19 Nanostructurated Composites Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Silver Nanoparticles 585 Oana Fuf?, George Mihail Vl?sceanu, Georgiana Dolete, Daniela Cabuzu, Rebecca Alexandra Puiu, Andreea Cirj?, Bogdan Nicoar? and Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu 19.1 Introduction 585 19.2 Silver Nanoparticles 586 19.3 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles 588 19.4 Silver Nanoparticle Composites 594 19.4.1 In situ and ex situ Strategies for AgNPs-Based Composites with Polymer Matrix 594 19.4.2 Other AgNPs Composites 599 19.5 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles Composites 600 19.5.1 Active Substance Delivery Composites 600 19.5.2 Antimicrobial Composites 603 19.6 Conclusions and Future Prospectives 607 Acknowledgments 608 References 608 20 Starch-Based Biomaterials and Nanocomposites 623 Arantzazu Valdes and Maria Carmen Garrigos 20.1 Introduction 623 20.2 Starch: Structure and Characteristics 625 20.3 Applicability of Starch in Food Industry 627 20.3.1 Starch Biomaterials: Films, Coatings, and Blends 629 20.3.2 Reinforced Materials 631 20.3.3 Starch Nanoparticles 632 20.4 Conclusion 632 References 633 21 Green Nanocomposites-Based on PLA and Natural Organic Fillers 637 Roberto Scaffaro, Luigi Botta, Francesco Lopresti, Andrea Maio and Fiorenza Sutera 21.1 Introduction 637 21.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 638 21.3 Natural Organic Nanofillers 640 21.3.1 Cellulose 641 21.3.1.1 Main Derivatization Methods Used to Increase Cellulose Affinity to PLA 643 21.3.2 Chitin 645 21.3.3 Starch 646 21.4 Bionanocomposites Based on PLA 648 21.4.1 PLA/cellulose Nanocomposites 648 21.4.1.1 Preparation 648 21.4.1.2 Properties 651 21.4.1.3 Degradation 653 21.4.2 PLA/chitin Nanocomposites 654 21.4.2.1 Preparation 654 21.4.2.2 Properties 655 21.4.3 PLA/starch Nanocomposites 656 21.4.3.1 Preparation 656 21.4.3.2 Properties 657 21.5 Conclusions 659 References 659 22 Chitin and Chitosan-Based (NANO) Composites 671 Andre R. Fajardo, Antonio G. B. Pereira, Alessandro F. Martins, Alexandre T. Paulino, Edvani C. Muniz and You-Lo Hsieh 22.1 Introduction 672 22.1.1 Chitin 672 22.1.2 Chitosan 673 22.2 Chitin and Chitosan Properties and Processing 674 22.3 Preparation and Characterization of Ct and Cs Composites: An Overview 675 22.4 Ct- and Cs-Metal Composites 679 22.5 Ct and Cs-Inorganic Composites 685 22.5.1 Food Packaging 685 22.5.2 Membranes 685 22.5.3 Biomedical Uses 685 22.5.4 Environmental Remediation 686 22.6 Composites Based on Ct and Cs Whiskers 687 22.7 Overview, Perspectives, and Conclusion 690 References 691 Index 701
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