Child Psychology and Psychiatry
-15%
portes grátis
Child Psychology and Psychiatry
Frameworks for Clinical Training and Practice
; ;
John Wiley and Sons Ltd
07/2017
488
Mole
Inglês
9781119170198
15 a 20 dias
Descrição não disponível.
Notes on Contributors xxiii Section 1 Developing Competencies 1a: Contextual Influences Upon Social and Emotional Development 1 1 Family and Systemic Influences 3 Barbara Maughan Family Relationships and Parenting 3 Parent and Family Characteristics 5 Sibling Relationships 5 Changing Family Patterns 6 Parental Separation and Divorce 6 Childcare and Schooling 6 Wider Social and Environmental Influences 7 Poverty and Social Disadvantage 7 Neighbourhood and Community Contexts 8 Multiple Stressors 8 References 8 2 Child Development and Cultural Considerations in Clinical Practice 11 Ruma Bose and Sanjida Sattar Introduction 11 Developmental Niche and Eco-Cultural Pathways 11 Childhood and Parenting Across Cultures 12 Infancy 12 Developmental Stages 12 Attachment 12 Parental Involvement in Play and Learning 13 Middle Childhood 13 Adolescence 14 Culture and Disability 14 Ethnicity and Mental Health 14 Conclusion 15 References 15 3 Neurobehavioural Development in Infancy: The Buffering and Transducing Role of the Mother/Caretaker Infant Dyad 17 Cindy H. Liu and Ed Tronick Introduction 17 Infant Neurobehavioural Capacities 17 Culture 18 Mutual Regulation and Buffer Transducer Models 20 Conclusion 21 References 22 4 Genetic and Biological Influences 25 David H. Skuse Introduction 25 How Many Genes Are There? 26 Sources of Genomic Variation 28 Mechanisms of Genomic Regulation 29 Mechanisms Influencing Neurodevelopmental Integrity 30 Measuring Genetic Susceptibility to Psychiatric Disorders 30 Gene Environment Interactions 30 Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) 31 Epigenetic Variation 32 Future of Psychiatric Genetics: Precision Medicine 32 Conclusions 33 References 34 Section 1b: General Patterns of Development 37 5 Clinical Evaluation of Development from Birth to 5 Years 39 Ajay Sharma, Tony O Sullivan and Gillian Baird Child Development and Neurodevelopmental Disorders 39 History-Taking 41 Observation and Interactive Assessment 42 Developmental Domains 42 Gross Motor 42 Visual Behaviour, Eye Hand Coordination and Problem-Solving 43 Early Visual Behaviour 43 Eye Hand Co-Ordination 43 Object Concepts and Relationships 44 Imitating and Copying Cube Models 44 Drawing 45 Language and Communication 46 Play and Social Behaviour 46 Development of Attention 46 Cognitive Development 46 Clinical Decision-Making and Severity of Developmental Delay 48 Physical Examination 49 Planning Medical Investigations and Making Diagnosis 50 Further Reading 51 6 Emotional Development in the First Year of Life 53 Howard Steele Introduction 53 Infant Emotional Expression 53 The Development of Infant Emotional Expressions 54 Crying 54 Smiling or Joy 55 Surprise, Anger and Sadness 55 Fear 55 Infant Detection of the Emotional Expressions of Others 56 The Interactive Context 57 References 57 7 Young People with Learning Disabilities 59 David Dossetor Introduction 59 The Changing Context 59 Human Rights, Equity of Access to Services and Social Inclusion 59 Assessment and Intervention 60 Quality of Life, Developmental and Mental Health Factors 60 Child and Family Factors 63 Educational and Service Influences 63 Types of Intervention 64 The Development of Services 65 Conclusion 66 References 67 Internet Resources 68 8 Language Development 71 Thomas Klee and Stephanie F. Stokes Processes and Components of Language Development 71 Milestones of Speech and Language Development 73 Developmental Phases 73 Atypical Language Development 75 Future Directions 75 References 75 Internet Resources 76 9 Development of Social Cognition 77 Virginia Slaughter Early Social Cognition 77 Social Cognition in Preschool and Beyond 78 Individual Differences in Social Cognition Implications for Children s Social Lives 79 Individual Differences in Social Cognition Where Do They Come From? 80 References 81 10 Social and Emotional Development in Middle Childhood 83 Alan Carr Introduction 83 The Preschool Years 83 Middle Childhood 85 Adolescence 86 Factors Contributing to SED 86 Positive SED 86 Problematic SED 87 Consequences of SED Problems in Middle Childhood 87 Addressing SED Problems 88 References 88 11 Social-Cognitive Development During Adolescence 91 Sarah-Jayne Blakemore Humans Are Exquisitely Social 91 The Social Brain 91 Development of Mentalizing During Adolescence 91 Online Mentalizing Usage is Still Developing in Mid-Adolescence 93 References 95 Section 2 Promoting Well-being 97 12 Attachment in the Early Years: Theory, Research and Clinical Implications 99 Pasco Fearon What is Attachment? 99 Attachment Variations and Their Measurement 100 Causes of Variation in Attachment 100 Attachment Disorders 103 Consequences of Variations in Attachment 103 Interventions 104 Preventive Interventions 104 Interventions with Fostered and Adopted Children 104 Conclusions 105 References 105 13 Promoting Infant Mental Health 109 Christine Puckering Why the Early Years Matter 109 Pregnancy and the Perinatal Period 110 Intervention 111 Antenatal and Postnatal Interventions 111 Intervention During Early Childhood 112 The Need for Supportive Services 113 Primary Health Care Services 113 The Role of Child Mental Health Services 113 References 113 14 Promoting Children s Well-Being: The Prevention of Depression and Anxiety 117 Paul Stallard Prevention 117 School-Based Prevention 119 Depression Prevention Programmes 119 Anxiety Prevention Programmes 120 Future Developments and Challenges 121 References 122 15 Fostering Resilience in Adolescents 125 Angela Veale Introduction 125 What Do We Mean by Resilience? 125 Agency in Resilience 126 Mobilizing Social Networks to Foster Coping and Resilience 126 Implications for Policy and Practice 127 Mobilizing Resilience: An Illustrative Example 127 Summary of the Project 127 Implementing the Project 129 Conclusion 130 References 131 16 Sexual Orientation, Sexual Health and Gender Dysphoria 133 Justin Wakefield Introduction 133 Sexual Orientation 133 Defining Sexual Orientation and Its Importance in Clinical Evaluation 133 An Overview of the Literature Relating Sexual Orientation and Mental Health 134 Understanding the Associations Between Sexual Orientation and Mental Health 134 Intervening to Prevent Adverse Mental Health Outcomes 134 Sexual Health 135 The Influence of Mental Health on Sexual Behaviour 135 The Influence of Mental Health Treatment on Sexual Behaviour 136 Clinical Implications 136 Gender Dysphoria 136 Diagnostic Issues 136 Epidemiology 136 Aetiology 137 Clinical Management in Childhood 137 Clinical Management in Adolescence 137 Non-specialist care 137 Specialist Care 138 Summary 138 References 138 17 Child Users of Online and Mobile Technologies Risks, Harms and Intervention 141 Peter K. Smith and Sonia Livingstone Aggressive Risks: Cyber-Aggression and Cyberbullying 142 Sexual Risks: Pornography, Sexting, Stranger Danger 142 Trends Over Time 143 The Harm Associated with Mobile and Online Risk 144 Aggressive Risks and Harm 144 Sexual Risks and Harm 145 Factors that Increase Risk of Harm or Protect Against Them 145 Interventions 145 Challenges to Research 145 Policy Implications 146 References 146 Internet Resources 148 Section 3 The Impact of Trauma, Loss and Maltreatment 3a: Trauma and Loss 149 18 Children Bereaved by Parent or Sibling Death 151 Linda Dowdney Children s Understanding of Death 151 How Children Express Grief 151 Early Childhood 151 Middle Childhood 152 Adolescence 152 Resilience and Positive Outcomes in Bereaved Children 152 Psychopathology in Bereaved Children 152 Prolonged Complex Bereavement 153 Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis (HPA) Dysregulation 153 What Influences Child Outcome? 153 Interventions with Bereaved Children 154 Theoretical and Cultural Influences 154 What Do Bereaved Children Need? 154 What is Helpful for Parents? 155 Services for Bereaved Children 155 The Role of Professionals 155 Conclusions 157 References 157 Internet Resources 159 For Families 159 Resources for Schools and Teachers 159 Advice on Different Faith and Belief Communities 159 19 Stress and Reactions to Stress in Children 161 David Trickey Reactions 161 Cognitive Model of PTSD 163 Evidence-Based Interventions 164 Conclusion 165 References 165 20 Children s Developing Sense of Moral Agency, and the Disruptions Associated with War Exposure 167 Cecilia Wainryb The Development of Moral Agency 167 Challenges Posed by Exposure to War 168 Numb Agency 168 Imbalanced Agency 169 Essentialized Agency 170 Conclusions 171 References 172 Section 3b: Maltreatment 175 21 Child Maltreatment 177 Danya Glaser Introduction 177 The Nature of Maltreatment 177 Epidemiology 177 Social and Family Factors 179 The Harm to the Child 179 Psychosocial Development 180 Educational Progress and Employment 181 Recognition of Maltreatment and Assessment of Harm and Need 181 Professional Response to Child Maltreatment 182 Treatment and Future Prevention 183 Conclusion 184 References 184 22 The Neuroscience and Genetics of Childhood Maltreatment 187 Eamon McCrory, Vanessa B. Puetz and Essi Viding The Impact of Maltreatment on Brain Development 187 Structural Differences 188 Subcortical Structures: The Hippocampus and Amygdala 188 Cortical Structures: The Prefrontal Cortex and Cerebellum 188 Corpus Callosum and Other White Matter Tracts 189 Functional Differences 190 FMRI Studies 190 Event-Related Potential (ERP) Studies 190 The Role of Genetic Influences 191 Clinical Implications 191 References 192 Section 4 Atypical Development in Children and Adolescents 195 23 Autism Spectrum Disorder An Evolving Construct 197 William Mandy The Dimensionality of ASD 198 The Fractionation of the Autism Triad 198 The End of Asperger s Disorder 199 Gender Differences in ASD 199 Higher Social Motivation 200 Distinct Pattern of Risk for Co-Occurring Conditions 200 A Better Capacity to Camouflage and Compensate for Autistic Difficulties 200 Conclusions 201 References 201 24 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 203 Antonio Munoz-Solomando and Anita Thapar Definition 203 Epidemiology 205 Aetiology 205 Cognitive and Neurobiological Correlates 205 Diagnostic Assessment 206 Information from Parents 206 Child Information and Observation 207 Report from School or Other Informants 207 Physical Examination 207 Treatment 207 Pharmacological Intervention 207 Stimulants 208 Non-Stimulants 209 Other Medications 209 Psycho-Social Interventions 210 School Interventions 210 Other Interventions 210 Clinical Course 211 References 211 25 Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents 215 Aaron Vallance and Elena Garralda Diagnostic Features 215 Epidemiology 217 Aetiology 217 Temperament 217 Genetic Factors 217 Environmental Factors and Parent Child Interactions 218 Neurobiology/Neuropsychology Factors 218 Respiratory Dysregulation 219 Assessment 219 Prognosis 219 Treatment 220 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) 220 Pharmacotherapy 221 Conclusion 224 References 224 26 Childhood Behavioural Disorders 227 Graeme Lamb and Ramya Srinivasan Introduction 227 Diagnostic Classifications and Subtyping 227 Epidemiology 229 Aetiology 229 Prevention and Treatment 230 Conclusion 232 References 232 27 Depression and Suicidal Behaviour 235 Julia Gledhill and Matthew Hodes Introduction 235 Depressive Disorder 235 Epidemiology 235 Aetiological Factors 236 Diagnostic Assessment 237 Outcome 237 Management 237 Initial Assessment 237 Treatment 238 Managing Associated Co-Morbidity and Risk Factors 238 Preventing Relapse 238 Suicidal Behaviour 238 Epidemiology 238 Aetiological Factors 239 Predisposing Factors 239 Individual 239 Family 239 Wider Environment 239 Precipitating Factors 239 Risk Associated with Self-Harm 240 Course 240 Management 240 Type of Assessment 240 Treatment 241 Prevention 241 References 242 28 Eating Disorders in Adolescence 245 Dasha Nicholls Diagnosis and Classification 245 Epidemiology and Aetiology 246 Managing Eating Disorders 248 Medical Aspects 248 Psychiatric Aspects of Management 250 Key Messages and Future Directions 251 References 251 29 Emerging Personality Disorder 255 Eileen Vizard Definitions 255 Temperament 255 Personality 255 Childhood Personality Traits and Adult Outcomes 255 Relevant Neuroscience Findings 257 Personality Assessment and Personality Disorder in Clinical Practice 257 Why Assess Childhood Personality? 257 Diagnostic Issues 258 Conclusions 260 References 261 30 Literacy Disorders 263 Valerie Muter and Margaret J. Snowling Definition, Incidence, Persistence and Co-occurrence 263 Acquiring Literacy Skills 264 The Nature of Impairment in Children with Literacy Disorders 264 Patterns of Impairment from Preschool to Adolescence 265 Assessing Literacy Disorders 266 Teaching Children with Literacy Disorders 268 References 269 31 Challenges in Child and Adolescent Obsessive Compulsive Disorder 271 Elaine Chung, Anup Kharod and Isobel Heyman The Hidden Problem 271 When Do Ordinary Childhood Rituals Become OCD? 272 Aetiology 272 Assessment of the Young Person with Possible OCD 272 Differential Diagnosis and Identifying OCD 272 Phenomenology of Obsessions and Compulsions 273 Obsessions May Cause More Distress Than Compulsions 273 Co-Morbidities 273 Treatment 274 Young People Becoming Experts 274 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy 274 Anxiety 274 OCD as An Intruder 275 Medication 276 Prognosis and Ongoing Care 277 References 277 Further Reading 279 Internet Resources 279 32 Medically Unexplained Symptoms/Functional Symptoms in Children and Adolescents 281 Eve McAllister, Laura Markham, Anna Coughtrey and Isobel Heyman Introduction 281 Epidemiology 282 Factors Relevant to the Development, Severity and Persistence of FS 282 Course of Illness 283 Assessment 284 Treatment 285 Effectiveness of Psychological Treatment 285 Psychopharmacological Treatment 286 Current Challenges and Future Directions 286 References 288 33 Paediatric Bipolar Disorder 291 Anthony James Introduction 291 Diagnostic Criteria 291 Differential Diagnosis 292 Epidemiology 293 Assessment 293 Prodrome and Longitudinal Course 294 Suicide 294 Treatment 295 Acute Phase 295 Treatment of Depression in Bipolar Disorder 296 Longer-Term Treatment 296 Psychological Interventions 296 References 296 34 Early Intervention in Psychosis 299 Paolo Fusar-Poli and Giulia Spada Introduction 299 Early-Onset Psychosis 299 The Psychosis Prodrome 300 The Clinical High-Risk State 300 Detecting the Clinical High-Risk State 300 The BS Approach 301 The UHR Approach 301 Using High-Risk Criteria with Children and Adolescents 303 Transition to Psychosis 303 Intervention 304 Future Directions 305 References 305 35 Developmental Language Disorder 307 Gina Conti-Ramsden and Kevin Durkin What is Developmental Language Disorder? 307 What Causes DLD? 308 Biological Bases of DLD: Genetic and Neurobiological Factors 308 Cognitive Bases of DLD: Non-Linguistic and Linguistic Factors 309 Environmental Influences 309 What Types of Language Difficulties Do Children with DLD Have? 309 Distinctive Features of Language in DLD 310 Developmental Progression of Language Skills in DLD 310 Associated Developmental Problems and Outcomes 311 Implications 311 References 312 Internet Resources 313 36 Substance Misuse in Young People 315 K. A. H. Mirza, Roshin M. Sudesh and Sudeshni Mirza Introduction 315 Epidemiology 315 Defining Substance Misuse in the Young: A Developmental Perspective 317 Definitions 317 Alternative Classifications in Young People 317 Aetiology: Risk and Protective Factors 320 Antecedent and Co-Morbid Mental Health Problems 320 Consequences and Associated Features of Substance Misuse 321 Clinical Assessment 322 Treatment 322 Evidence Base for Treatment 322 Role of Child and Adolescent Substance Mental Health Services (CAMHS) 323 Conclusions 323 References 324 Appendix 36.1 Clinical Assessment 326 Mental State Examination and Physical Examination 326 Investigations 327 Section 5 Assessment and Approaches to Intervention 329 37 New Perspectives on the Classification of Child Psychiatric Disorders 331 Elena Garralda Introduction 331 The Modern Area of Classification of Psychiatric Disorders 331 Classification in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 332 Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Disorders in DSM 5 and as Proposed for ICD 11 333 The Neurodevelopmental Disorders 333 Autistic Disorders 333 Developmental Language or Communication Disorders 334 The Classification of Disruptive, Dissocial and Conduct Disorders 334 Future Approaches to Classification 335 Classification and Child and Adolescent Mental Health Practice 335 Final Considerations 336 References 336 38 Paediatric Neuropsychological Assessment: Domains for Assessment 339 Jane Gilmour and Bettina Hohnen Introduction 339 Why Undertake a Specialized Neuropsychological Assessment? 339 When is a Specialized Neuropsychological Assessment Justified? 339 Measurement Considerations 340 Developmental Considerations 340 Be Sure of Why the Child Fails a Task What is Their Route to Failure? 340 Psychometrics 341 Reliability and Validity 341 Interpreting Scores 341 Domains of Specialist Assessment 341 General Ability 341 Memory 347 Language 347 Attention 349 Spatial Ability 349 Motor Skills 349 Executive Function 349 Social Cognition 350 Conclusions 350 References 351 39 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Children and Adolescents 355 Cathy Creswell and Thomas G. O Connor Basic Premises of the CBT Approach and its Administration 356 Developmental Considerations 357 Recent Advances and Future Directions for CBT for Children and Adolescents 358 Conclusion 360 References 360 Further Reading 362 40 Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Children and Adolescents 363 Eilis Kennedy Introduction 363 Basic Premises of a Psychodynamic Approach 363 The Evidence Base for Psychodynamic Child Psychotherapy 364 Examples of Research with Children and Young People Presenting with Various Clinical Problems 364 Children Who Have Experienced Abuse 364 Internalizing and Externalizing Disorders 364 Disruptive Behaviour Disorders 364 Internalizing Disorders 364 Mixed Diagnoses 365 Young People with Poorly Controlled Diabetes 366 Long-Term Outcomes 366 The Anna Freud Centre Long-Term Follow-up Study 366 Potential Adverse Effects of Treatment 367 Conclusion 367 References 367 41 Systemic and Family Approaches to Intervention 371 Philip Messent Introduction 371 Externalizing Disorders 371 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 371 Conduct Problems in Adolescence 372 Substance Misuse in Adolescence 372 Emotional Problems 372 Anxiety 372 Depression 373 Self-Harm and Attempted Suicide 373 Eating Disorders 373 Adolescent Anorexia Nervosa 373 Obesity 374 First Episode Psychosis 374 A Different Sort of Evidence 374 References 375 42 Mentalization 379 Dickon Bevington Introduction 379 Definition 379 Development 380 Relevance 381 Applications 381 The Mentalizing Stance 381 Specific Interventions 382 Mentalization-Based Treatment 382 MBT-Families 382 Adaptive Mentalization-Based Integrative Treatment (AMBIT) 383 References 384 43 Parenting Programmes for Conduct Problems 387 Stephen Scott and Sajid Humayun Evidence Linking Parenting to Child Psychopathology 387 Programmes for Children Based on Social Learning Theory 387 Format of a Typical Social Learning Programme 388 Teaching a Child-Centred Approach 388 Increasing Desirable Child Behaviour 389 Imposing Clear Commands 389 Reducing Undesirable Child Behaviour 389 Interventions with Youth 389 Family-Based Interventions 390 Multi-Component Interventions 390 Effectiveness 391 Social Learning Approaches 391 Youth Interventions 391 Mediators and Moderators of Change 391 Dissemination: The Role of Therapist Skill 391 Conclusion 392 References 392 44 Paediatric Psychopharmacology Special Considerations 395 Paramala Santosh and Rakendu Suren Introduction 395 Information to Assist Judicious Prescribing 395 Medication as a Part of Multi-Modal Treatment Package 396 Symptom-Based Pharmacotherapeutic Strategy 396 The Art of Prescribing Medication 396 Use of Non-Licensed Psychotropic Medication 397 Factors Affecting Pharmacotherapy in Children 397 Medications 398 Stimulants 399 Antipsychotics 399 Second-Generation Antipsychotics (SGAs) 399 Mood Stabilizers 403 Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD) 403 Drug Interactions 404 Ethical Issues in Paediatric Psychopharmacology 404 Conclusion 404 References 404 45 Paediatric Liaison 407 Peter Hindley Overview 407 Paediatric Liaison and Child and Adolescent Mental Health Emergencies 407 Paediatric Liaison and the Mind Body Interface 408 Paediatric Liaison: Management, Commissioning and Value for Money 410 Conclusions 410 References 411 46 Promoting Educational Success: How Findings from Neuroscience can Guide Educators to Work Optimally with the Brain 413 Bettina Hohnen Education and Neuroscience: The Debate 413 Neuro-Myths 413 Optimum Context for Learning: A Neuroscientific Model 414 Background to Brain Development 414 Level 1 415 Level 2 415 Level 3 416 Level 4 416 Level 5 416 Level 6 416 Developmental Changes in the Brain: The Case of Adolescence 416 1. Reward 417 2. Regulation 417 3. Relationships 417 4. Creativity and Higher-Order Thinking 417 References 418 47 Continuities and Discontinuities in Youth Mental Healthcare 421 Helen Bruce and Linda Dowdney Introduction 421 Service Characteristics 421 Client Characteristics 422 Ways Forward 423 Evaluation of Transition Outcomes 424 Conclusions 424 References 425 Internet Resources 426 Youth mental health support 426 For Professionals and Commissioners of Services 427 48 The Children and Young People s Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (CYP IAPT) Programme in England 429 Peter Fonagy, Kathryn Pugh and Anne O Herlihy Introduction 429 Challenges Facing CAMHS 429 Implementation 430 Partnerships and Collaboratives 430 Implementation Initiatives 430 Training Initiatives 431 User Participation Initiatives 431 Monitoring User Participation and Training Initiatives 431 Service Development Outcomes 432 Evaluation 432 Improved Access and Efficiency 432 Evidence-Based Interventions 432 ROM and User Engagement 433 Challenges to Implementation 433 Future Directions 433 References 433 Internet Resources 435 Index 437
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Notes on Contributors xxiii Section 1 Developing Competencies 1a: Contextual Influences Upon Social and Emotional Development 1 1 Family and Systemic Influences 3 Barbara Maughan Family Relationships and Parenting 3 Parent and Family Characteristics 5 Sibling Relationships 5 Changing Family Patterns 6 Parental Separation and Divorce 6 Childcare and Schooling 6 Wider Social and Environmental Influences 7 Poverty and Social Disadvantage 7 Neighbourhood and Community Contexts 8 Multiple Stressors 8 References 8 2 Child Development and Cultural Considerations in Clinical Practice 11 Ruma Bose and Sanjida Sattar Introduction 11 Developmental Niche and Eco-Cultural Pathways 11 Childhood and Parenting Across Cultures 12 Infancy 12 Developmental Stages 12 Attachment 12 Parental Involvement in Play and Learning 13 Middle Childhood 13 Adolescence 14 Culture and Disability 14 Ethnicity and Mental Health 14 Conclusion 15 References 15 3 Neurobehavioural Development in Infancy: The Buffering and Transducing Role of the Mother/Caretaker Infant Dyad 17 Cindy H. Liu and Ed Tronick Introduction 17 Infant Neurobehavioural Capacities 17 Culture 18 Mutual Regulation and Buffer Transducer Models 20 Conclusion 21 References 22 4 Genetic and Biological Influences 25 David H. Skuse Introduction 25 How Many Genes Are There? 26 Sources of Genomic Variation 28 Mechanisms of Genomic Regulation 29 Mechanisms Influencing Neurodevelopmental Integrity 30 Measuring Genetic Susceptibility to Psychiatric Disorders 30 Gene Environment Interactions 30 Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) 31 Epigenetic Variation 32 Future of Psychiatric Genetics: Precision Medicine 32 Conclusions 33 References 34 Section 1b: General Patterns of Development 37 5 Clinical Evaluation of Development from Birth to 5 Years 39 Ajay Sharma, Tony O Sullivan and Gillian Baird Child Development and Neurodevelopmental Disorders 39 History-Taking 41 Observation and Interactive Assessment 42 Developmental Domains 42 Gross Motor 42 Visual Behaviour, Eye Hand Coordination and Problem-Solving 43 Early Visual Behaviour 43 Eye Hand Co-Ordination 43 Object Concepts and Relationships 44 Imitating and Copying Cube Models 44 Drawing 45 Language and Communication 46 Play and Social Behaviour 46 Development of Attention 46 Cognitive Development 46 Clinical Decision-Making and Severity of Developmental Delay 48 Physical Examination 49 Planning Medical Investigations and Making Diagnosis 50 Further Reading 51 6 Emotional Development in the First Year of Life 53 Howard Steele Introduction 53 Infant Emotional Expression 53 The Development of Infant Emotional Expressions 54 Crying 54 Smiling or Joy 55 Surprise, Anger and Sadness 55 Fear 55 Infant Detection of the Emotional Expressions of Others 56 The Interactive Context 57 References 57 7 Young People with Learning Disabilities 59 David Dossetor Introduction 59 The Changing Context 59 Human Rights, Equity of Access to Services and Social Inclusion 59 Assessment and Intervention 60 Quality of Life, Developmental and Mental Health Factors 60 Child and Family Factors 63 Educational and Service Influences 63 Types of Intervention 64 The Development of Services 65 Conclusion 66 References 67 Internet Resources 68 8 Language Development 71 Thomas Klee and Stephanie F. Stokes Processes and Components of Language Development 71 Milestones of Speech and Language Development 73 Developmental Phases 73 Atypical Language Development 75 Future Directions 75 References 75 Internet Resources 76 9 Development of Social Cognition 77 Virginia Slaughter Early Social Cognition 77 Social Cognition in Preschool and Beyond 78 Individual Differences in Social Cognition Implications for Children s Social Lives 79 Individual Differences in Social Cognition Where Do They Come From? 80 References 81 10 Social and Emotional Development in Middle Childhood 83 Alan Carr Introduction 83 The Preschool Years 83 Middle Childhood 85 Adolescence 86 Factors Contributing to SED 86 Positive SED 86 Problematic SED 87 Consequences of SED Problems in Middle Childhood 87 Addressing SED Problems 88 References 88 11 Social-Cognitive Development During Adolescence 91 Sarah-Jayne Blakemore Humans Are Exquisitely Social 91 The Social Brain 91 Development of Mentalizing During Adolescence 91 Online Mentalizing Usage is Still Developing in Mid-Adolescence 93 References 95 Section 2 Promoting Well-being 97 12 Attachment in the Early Years: Theory, Research and Clinical Implications 99 Pasco Fearon What is Attachment? 99 Attachment Variations and Their Measurement 100 Causes of Variation in Attachment 100 Attachment Disorders 103 Consequences of Variations in Attachment 103 Interventions 104 Preventive Interventions 104 Interventions with Fostered and Adopted Children 104 Conclusions 105 References 105 13 Promoting Infant Mental Health 109 Christine Puckering Why the Early Years Matter 109 Pregnancy and the Perinatal Period 110 Intervention 111 Antenatal and Postnatal Interventions 111 Intervention During Early Childhood 112 The Need for Supportive Services 113 Primary Health Care Services 113 The Role of Child Mental Health Services 113 References 113 14 Promoting Children s Well-Being: The Prevention of Depression and Anxiety 117 Paul Stallard Prevention 117 School-Based Prevention 119 Depression Prevention Programmes 119 Anxiety Prevention Programmes 120 Future Developments and Challenges 121 References 122 15 Fostering Resilience in Adolescents 125 Angela Veale Introduction 125 What Do We Mean by Resilience? 125 Agency in Resilience 126 Mobilizing Social Networks to Foster Coping and Resilience 126 Implications for Policy and Practice 127 Mobilizing Resilience: An Illustrative Example 127 Summary of the Project 127 Implementing the Project 129 Conclusion 130 References 131 16 Sexual Orientation, Sexual Health and Gender Dysphoria 133 Justin Wakefield Introduction 133 Sexual Orientation 133 Defining Sexual Orientation and Its Importance in Clinical Evaluation 133 An Overview of the Literature Relating Sexual Orientation and Mental Health 134 Understanding the Associations Between Sexual Orientation and Mental Health 134 Intervening to Prevent Adverse Mental Health Outcomes 134 Sexual Health 135 The Influence of Mental Health on Sexual Behaviour 135 The Influence of Mental Health Treatment on Sexual Behaviour 136 Clinical Implications 136 Gender Dysphoria 136 Diagnostic Issues 136 Epidemiology 136 Aetiology 137 Clinical Management in Childhood 137 Clinical Management in Adolescence 137 Non-specialist care 137 Specialist Care 138 Summary 138 References 138 17 Child Users of Online and Mobile Technologies Risks, Harms and Intervention 141 Peter K. Smith and Sonia Livingstone Aggressive Risks: Cyber-Aggression and Cyberbullying 142 Sexual Risks: Pornography, Sexting, Stranger Danger 142 Trends Over Time 143 The Harm Associated with Mobile and Online Risk 144 Aggressive Risks and Harm 144 Sexual Risks and Harm 145 Factors that Increase Risk of Harm or Protect Against Them 145 Interventions 145 Challenges to Research 145 Policy Implications 146 References 146 Internet Resources 148 Section 3 The Impact of Trauma, Loss and Maltreatment 3a: Trauma and Loss 149 18 Children Bereaved by Parent or Sibling Death 151 Linda Dowdney Children s Understanding of Death 151 How Children Express Grief 151 Early Childhood 151 Middle Childhood 152 Adolescence 152 Resilience and Positive Outcomes in Bereaved Children 152 Psychopathology in Bereaved Children 152 Prolonged Complex Bereavement 153 Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis (HPA) Dysregulation 153 What Influences Child Outcome? 153 Interventions with Bereaved Children 154 Theoretical and Cultural Influences 154 What Do Bereaved Children Need? 154 What is Helpful for Parents? 155 Services for Bereaved Children 155 The Role of Professionals 155 Conclusions 157 References 157 Internet Resources 159 For Families 159 Resources for Schools and Teachers 159 Advice on Different Faith and Belief Communities 159 19 Stress and Reactions to Stress in Children 161 David Trickey Reactions 161 Cognitive Model of PTSD 163 Evidence-Based Interventions 164 Conclusion 165 References 165 20 Children s Developing Sense of Moral Agency, and the Disruptions Associated with War Exposure 167 Cecilia Wainryb The Development of Moral Agency 167 Challenges Posed by Exposure to War 168 Numb Agency 168 Imbalanced Agency 169 Essentialized Agency 170 Conclusions 171 References 172 Section 3b: Maltreatment 175 21 Child Maltreatment 177 Danya Glaser Introduction 177 The Nature of Maltreatment 177 Epidemiology 177 Social and Family Factors 179 The Harm to the Child 179 Psychosocial Development 180 Educational Progress and Employment 181 Recognition of Maltreatment and Assessment of Harm and Need 181 Professional Response to Child Maltreatment 182 Treatment and Future Prevention 183 Conclusion 184 References 184 22 The Neuroscience and Genetics of Childhood Maltreatment 187 Eamon McCrory, Vanessa B. Puetz and Essi Viding The Impact of Maltreatment on Brain Development 187 Structural Differences 188 Subcortical Structures: The Hippocampus and Amygdala 188 Cortical Structures: The Prefrontal Cortex and Cerebellum 188 Corpus Callosum and Other White Matter Tracts 189 Functional Differences 190 FMRI Studies 190 Event-Related Potential (ERP) Studies 190 The Role of Genetic Influences 191 Clinical Implications 191 References 192 Section 4 Atypical Development in Children and Adolescents 195 23 Autism Spectrum Disorder An Evolving Construct 197 William Mandy The Dimensionality of ASD 198 The Fractionation of the Autism Triad 198 The End of Asperger s Disorder 199 Gender Differences in ASD 199 Higher Social Motivation 200 Distinct Pattern of Risk for Co-Occurring Conditions 200 A Better Capacity to Camouflage and Compensate for Autistic Difficulties 200 Conclusions 201 References 201 24 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 203 Antonio Munoz-Solomando and Anita Thapar Definition 203 Epidemiology 205 Aetiology 205 Cognitive and Neurobiological Correlates 205 Diagnostic Assessment 206 Information from Parents 206 Child Information and Observation 207 Report from School or Other Informants 207 Physical Examination 207 Treatment 207 Pharmacological Intervention 207 Stimulants 208 Non-Stimulants 209 Other Medications 209 Psycho-Social Interventions 210 School Interventions 210 Other Interventions 210 Clinical Course 211 References 211 25 Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents 215 Aaron Vallance and Elena Garralda Diagnostic Features 215 Epidemiology 217 Aetiology 217 Temperament 217 Genetic Factors 217 Environmental Factors and Parent Child Interactions 218 Neurobiology/Neuropsychology Factors 218 Respiratory Dysregulation 219 Assessment 219 Prognosis 219 Treatment 220 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) 220 Pharmacotherapy 221 Conclusion 224 References 224 26 Childhood Behavioural Disorders 227 Graeme Lamb and Ramya Srinivasan Introduction 227 Diagnostic Classifications and Subtyping 227 Epidemiology 229 Aetiology 229 Prevention and Treatment 230 Conclusion 232 References 232 27 Depression and Suicidal Behaviour 235 Julia Gledhill and Matthew Hodes Introduction 235 Depressive Disorder 235 Epidemiology 235 Aetiological Factors 236 Diagnostic Assessment 237 Outcome 237 Management 237 Initial Assessment 237 Treatment 238 Managing Associated Co-Morbidity and Risk Factors 238 Preventing Relapse 238 Suicidal Behaviour 238 Epidemiology 238 Aetiological Factors 239 Predisposing Factors 239 Individual 239 Family 239 Wider Environment 239 Precipitating Factors 239 Risk Associated with Self-Harm 240 Course 240 Management 240 Type of Assessment 240 Treatment 241 Prevention 241 References 242 28 Eating Disorders in Adolescence 245 Dasha Nicholls Diagnosis and Classification 245 Epidemiology and Aetiology 246 Managing Eating Disorders 248 Medical Aspects 248 Psychiatric Aspects of Management 250 Key Messages and Future Directions 251 References 251 29 Emerging Personality Disorder 255 Eileen Vizard Definitions 255 Temperament 255 Personality 255 Childhood Personality Traits and Adult Outcomes 255 Relevant Neuroscience Findings 257 Personality Assessment and Personality Disorder in Clinical Practice 257 Why Assess Childhood Personality? 257 Diagnostic Issues 258 Conclusions 260 References 261 30 Literacy Disorders 263 Valerie Muter and Margaret J. Snowling Definition, Incidence, Persistence and Co-occurrence 263 Acquiring Literacy Skills 264 The Nature of Impairment in Children with Literacy Disorders 264 Patterns of Impairment from Preschool to Adolescence 265 Assessing Literacy Disorders 266 Teaching Children with Literacy Disorders 268 References 269 31 Challenges in Child and Adolescent Obsessive Compulsive Disorder 271 Elaine Chung, Anup Kharod and Isobel Heyman The Hidden Problem 271 When Do Ordinary Childhood Rituals Become OCD? 272 Aetiology 272 Assessment of the Young Person with Possible OCD 272 Differential Diagnosis and Identifying OCD 272 Phenomenology of Obsessions and Compulsions 273 Obsessions May Cause More Distress Than Compulsions 273 Co-Morbidities 273 Treatment 274 Young People Becoming Experts 274 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy 274 Anxiety 274 OCD as An Intruder 275 Medication 276 Prognosis and Ongoing Care 277 References 277 Further Reading 279 Internet Resources 279 32 Medically Unexplained Symptoms/Functional Symptoms in Children and Adolescents 281 Eve McAllister, Laura Markham, Anna Coughtrey and Isobel Heyman Introduction 281 Epidemiology 282 Factors Relevant to the Development, Severity and Persistence of FS 282 Course of Illness 283 Assessment 284 Treatment 285 Effectiveness of Psychological Treatment 285 Psychopharmacological Treatment 286 Current Challenges and Future Directions 286 References 288 33 Paediatric Bipolar Disorder 291 Anthony James Introduction 291 Diagnostic Criteria 291 Differential Diagnosis 292 Epidemiology 293 Assessment 293 Prodrome and Longitudinal Course 294 Suicide 294 Treatment 295 Acute Phase 295 Treatment of Depression in Bipolar Disorder 296 Longer-Term Treatment 296 Psychological Interventions 296 References 296 34 Early Intervention in Psychosis 299 Paolo Fusar-Poli and Giulia Spada Introduction 299 Early-Onset Psychosis 299 The Psychosis Prodrome 300 The Clinical High-Risk State 300 Detecting the Clinical High-Risk State 300 The BS Approach 301 The UHR Approach 301 Using High-Risk Criteria with Children and Adolescents 303 Transition to Psychosis 303 Intervention 304 Future Directions 305 References 305 35 Developmental Language Disorder 307 Gina Conti-Ramsden and Kevin Durkin What is Developmental Language Disorder? 307 What Causes DLD? 308 Biological Bases of DLD: Genetic and Neurobiological Factors 308 Cognitive Bases of DLD: Non-Linguistic and Linguistic Factors 309 Environmental Influences 309 What Types of Language Difficulties Do Children with DLD Have? 309 Distinctive Features of Language in DLD 310 Developmental Progression of Language Skills in DLD 310 Associated Developmental Problems and Outcomes 311 Implications 311 References 312 Internet Resources 313 36 Substance Misuse in Young People 315 K. A. H. Mirza, Roshin M. Sudesh and Sudeshni Mirza Introduction 315 Epidemiology 315 Defining Substance Misuse in the Young: A Developmental Perspective 317 Definitions 317 Alternative Classifications in Young People 317 Aetiology: Risk and Protective Factors 320 Antecedent and Co-Morbid Mental Health Problems 320 Consequences and Associated Features of Substance Misuse 321 Clinical Assessment 322 Treatment 322 Evidence Base for Treatment 322 Role of Child and Adolescent Substance Mental Health Services (CAMHS) 323 Conclusions 323 References 324 Appendix 36.1 Clinical Assessment 326 Mental State Examination and Physical Examination 326 Investigations 327 Section 5 Assessment and Approaches to Intervention 329 37 New Perspectives on the Classification of Child Psychiatric Disorders 331 Elena Garralda Introduction 331 The Modern Area of Classification of Psychiatric Disorders 331 Classification in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 332 Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Disorders in DSM 5 and as Proposed for ICD 11 333 The Neurodevelopmental Disorders 333 Autistic Disorders 333 Developmental Language or Communication Disorders 334 The Classification of Disruptive, Dissocial and Conduct Disorders 334 Future Approaches to Classification 335 Classification and Child and Adolescent Mental Health Practice 335 Final Considerations 336 References 336 38 Paediatric Neuropsychological Assessment: Domains for Assessment 339 Jane Gilmour and Bettina Hohnen Introduction 339 Why Undertake a Specialized Neuropsychological Assessment? 339 When is a Specialized Neuropsychological Assessment Justified? 339 Measurement Considerations 340 Developmental Considerations 340 Be Sure of Why the Child Fails a Task What is Their Route to Failure? 340 Psychometrics 341 Reliability and Validity 341 Interpreting Scores 341 Domains of Specialist Assessment 341 General Ability 341 Memory 347 Language 347 Attention 349 Spatial Ability 349 Motor Skills 349 Executive Function 349 Social Cognition 350 Conclusions 350 References 351 39 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Children and Adolescents 355 Cathy Creswell and Thomas G. O Connor Basic Premises of the CBT Approach and its Administration 356 Developmental Considerations 357 Recent Advances and Future Directions for CBT for Children and Adolescents 358 Conclusion 360 References 360 Further Reading 362 40 Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Children and Adolescents 363 Eilis Kennedy Introduction 363 Basic Premises of a Psychodynamic Approach 363 The Evidence Base for Psychodynamic Child Psychotherapy 364 Examples of Research with Children and Young People Presenting with Various Clinical Problems 364 Children Who Have Experienced Abuse 364 Internalizing and Externalizing Disorders 364 Disruptive Behaviour Disorders 364 Internalizing Disorders 364 Mixed Diagnoses 365 Young People with Poorly Controlled Diabetes 366 Long-Term Outcomes 366 The Anna Freud Centre Long-Term Follow-up Study 366 Potential Adverse Effects of Treatment 367 Conclusion 367 References 367 41 Systemic and Family Approaches to Intervention 371 Philip Messent Introduction 371 Externalizing Disorders 371 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 371 Conduct Problems in Adolescence 372 Substance Misuse in Adolescence 372 Emotional Problems 372 Anxiety 372 Depression 373 Self-Harm and Attempted Suicide 373 Eating Disorders 373 Adolescent Anorexia Nervosa 373 Obesity 374 First Episode Psychosis 374 A Different Sort of Evidence 374 References 375 42 Mentalization 379 Dickon Bevington Introduction 379 Definition 379 Development 380 Relevance 381 Applications 381 The Mentalizing Stance 381 Specific Interventions 382 Mentalization-Based Treatment 382 MBT-Families 382 Adaptive Mentalization-Based Integrative Treatment (AMBIT) 383 References 384 43 Parenting Programmes for Conduct Problems 387 Stephen Scott and Sajid Humayun Evidence Linking Parenting to Child Psychopathology 387 Programmes for Children Based on Social Learning Theory 387 Format of a Typical Social Learning Programme 388 Teaching a Child-Centred Approach 388 Increasing Desirable Child Behaviour 389 Imposing Clear Commands 389 Reducing Undesirable Child Behaviour 389 Interventions with Youth 389 Family-Based Interventions 390 Multi-Component Interventions 390 Effectiveness 391 Social Learning Approaches 391 Youth Interventions 391 Mediators and Moderators of Change 391 Dissemination: The Role of Therapist Skill 391 Conclusion 392 References 392 44 Paediatric Psychopharmacology Special Considerations 395 Paramala Santosh and Rakendu Suren Introduction 395 Information to Assist Judicious Prescribing 395 Medication as a Part of Multi-Modal Treatment Package 396 Symptom-Based Pharmacotherapeutic Strategy 396 The Art of Prescribing Medication 396 Use of Non-Licensed Psychotropic Medication 397 Factors Affecting Pharmacotherapy in Children 397 Medications 398 Stimulants 399 Antipsychotics 399 Second-Generation Antipsychotics (SGAs) 399 Mood Stabilizers 403 Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD) 403 Drug Interactions 404 Ethical Issues in Paediatric Psychopharmacology 404 Conclusion 404 References 404 45 Paediatric Liaison 407 Peter Hindley Overview 407 Paediatric Liaison and Child and Adolescent Mental Health Emergencies 407 Paediatric Liaison and the Mind Body Interface 408 Paediatric Liaison: Management, Commissioning and Value for Money 410 Conclusions 410 References 411 46 Promoting Educational Success: How Findings from Neuroscience can Guide Educators to Work Optimally with the Brain 413 Bettina Hohnen Education and Neuroscience: The Debate 413 Neuro-Myths 413 Optimum Context for Learning: A Neuroscientific Model 414 Background to Brain Development 414 Level 1 415 Level 2 415 Level 3 416 Level 4 416 Level 5 416 Level 6 416 Developmental Changes in the Brain: The Case of Adolescence 416 1. Reward 417 2. Regulation 417 3. Relationships 417 4. Creativity and Higher-Order Thinking 417 References 418 47 Continuities and Discontinuities in Youth Mental Healthcare 421 Helen Bruce and Linda Dowdney Introduction 421 Service Characteristics 421 Client Characteristics 422 Ways Forward 423 Evaluation of Transition Outcomes 424 Conclusions 424 References 425 Internet Resources 426 Youth mental health support 426 For Professionals and Commissioners of Services 427 48 The Children and Young People s Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (CYP IAPT) Programme in England 429 Peter Fonagy, Kathryn Pugh and Anne O Herlihy Introduction 429 Challenges Facing CAMHS 429 Implementation 430 Partnerships and Collaboratives 430 Implementation Initiatives 430 Training Initiatives 431 User Participation Initiatives 431 Monitoring User Participation and Training Initiatives 431 Service Development Outcomes 432 Evaluation 432 Improved Access and Efficiency 432 Evidence-Based Interventions 432 ROM and User Engagement 433 Challenges to Implementation 433 Future Directions 433 References 433 Internet Resources 435 Index 437
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