Autonomous Mobile Robots and Multi-Robot Systems

List of Contributors xi Preface xiii Acknowledgments xv About the Companion Website xvii Introduction 1 Eugene Kagan, Nir Shvalb, and Irad Ben-Gal I.1 Early History of Robots 1 I.2 Autonomous Robots 2 I.3 Robot Arm Manipulators 6 I.4 Mobile Robots 8 I.5 Multi-Robot Systems and Swarms 12 I.6 Goal and Structure of the Book 16 References 17 1 Motion-Planning Schemes in Global Coordinates 21 Oded Medina and Nir Shvalb 1.1 Motivation 21 1.2 Notations 21 1.2.1 The Configuration Space 22 1.2.2 The Workspace 23 1.2.3 The Weight Function 23 1.3 Motion-Planning Schemes: Known Configuration Spaces 25 1.3.1 Potential-Field Algorithms 25 1.3.2 Grid-Based Algorithms 27 1.3.3 Sampling-Based Algorithms 29 1.4 Motion-Planning Schemes: Partially Known Configuration Spaces 30 1.4.1 BUG0 (Reads Bug-Zero) 31 1.4.2 BUG1 32 1.4.3 BUG2 32 1.5 Summary 33 References 33 2 Basic Perception 35 Simon Lineykin 2.1 Basic Scheme of Sensors 35 2.2 Obstacle Sensor (Bumper) 36 2.3 The Odometry Sensor 48 2.4 Distance Sensors 52 2.4.1 The ToF Range Finders 52 2.4.2 The Phase Shift Range Finder 56 2.4.3 Triangulation Range Finder 59 2.4.4 Ultrasonic Rangefinder 60 2.5 Summary 63 References 63 3 Motion in the Global Coordinates 65 Nir Shvalb and Shlomi Hacohen 3.1 Models of Mobile Robots 65 3.1.1 Wheeled Mobile Robots 65 3.1.2 Aerial Mobile Robots 67 3.2 Kinematic and Control of Hilare-Type Mobile Robots 69 3.2.1 Forward Kinematics of Hilare-Type Mobile Robots 69 3.2.2 Velocity Control of Hilare-Type Mobile Robots 71 3.2.3 Trajectory Tracking 72 3.3 Kinematic and Control of Quadrotor Mobile Robots 74 3.3.1 Dynamics of Quadrotor-Type Mobile Robots 74 3.3.2 Forces and Torques Generated by the Propellers 75 3.3.3 Relative End Global Coordinates 76 3.3.4 The Quadrotor Dynamic Model 78 3.3.5 A Simplified Dynamic Model 79 3.3.6 Trajectory Tracking Control of Quadrotors 80 3.3.7 Simulations 84 References 85 4 Motion in Potential Field and Navigation Function 87 Nir Shvalb and Shlomi Hacohen 4.1 Problem Statement 87 4.2 Gradient Descent Method of Optimization 89 4.2.1 Gradient Descent Without Constraints 89 4.2.2 Gradient Descent with Constraints 92 4.3 Minkowski Sum 94 4.4 Potential Field 95 4.5 Navigation Function 99 4.5.1 Navigation Function in Static Deterministic Environment 99 4.5.2 Navigation Function in Static Uncertain Environment 102 4.5.3 Navigation Function and Potential Fields in Dynamic Environment 104 4.5.3.1 Estimation 105 4.5.3.2 Prediction 105 4.5.3.3 Optimization 106 4.6 Summary 106 References 107 5 GNSS and Robot Localization 109 Roi Yozevitch and Boaz Ben-Moshe 5.1 Introduction to Satellite Navigation 109 5.1.1 Trilateration 109 5.2 Position Calculation 111 5.2.1 Multipath Signals 111 5.2.2 GNSS Accuracy Analysis 112 5.2.3 DoP 112 5.3 Coordinate Systems 113 5.3.1 Latitude, Longitude, and Altitude 113 5.3.2 UTM Projection 113 5.3.3 Local Cartesian Coordinates 114 5.4 Velocity Calculation 115 5.4.1 Calculation Outlines 115 5.4.2 Implantation Remarks 116 5.5 Urban Navigation 116 5.5.1 Urban Canyon Navigation 117 5.5.2 Map Matching 117 5.5.3 Dead Reckoning - Inertial Sensors 118 5.6 Incorporating GNSS Data with INS 118 5.6.1 Modified Particle Filter 118 5.6.2 Estimating Velocity by Combining GNSS and INS 119 5.7 GNSS Protocols 120 5.8 Other Types of GPS 121 5.8.1 A-GPS 121 5.8.2 DGPS Systems 122 5.8.3 RTK Navigation 122 5.9 GNSS Threats 123 5.9.1 GNSS Jamming 123 5.9.2 GNSS Spoofing 123 References 123 6 Motion in Local Coordinates 125 Shraga Shoval 6.1 Global Motion Planning and Navigation 125 6.2 Motion Planning with Uncertainties 128 6.2.1 Uncertainties in Vehicle Performance 128 6.2.1.1 Internal Dynamic Uncertainties 128 6.2.1.2 External Dynamic Uncertainties 129 6.2.2 Sensors Uncertainties 129 6.2.3 Motion-Planning Adaptation to Uncertainties 130 6.3 Online Motion Planning 131 6.3.1 Motion Planning with Differential Constraints 132 6.3.2 Reactive Motion Planning 134 6.4 Global Positioning with Local Maps 135 6.5 UAV Motion Planning in 3D Space 137 6.6 Summary 139 References 140 7 Motion in an Unknown Environment 143 Eugene Kagan 7.1 Probabilistic Map-Based Localization 143 7.1.1 Beliefs Distribution and Markov Localization 145 7.1.2 Motion Prediction and Kalman Localization 150 7.2 Mapping the Unknown Environment and Decision-Making 154 7.2.1 Mapping and Localization 155 7.2.2 Decision-Making under Uncertainties 161 7.3 Examples of Probabilistic Motion Planning 169 7.3.1 Motion Planning in Belief Space 169 7.3.2 Mapping of the Environment 176 7.4 Summary 178 References 179 8 Energy Limitations and Energetic Efficiency of Mobile Robots 183 Michael Ben Chaim 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 The Problem of Energy Limitations in Mobile Robots 183 8.3 Review of Selected Literature on Power Management and Energy Control in Mobile Robots 185 8.4 Energetic Model of Mobile Robot 186 8.5 Mobile Robots Propulsion 188 8.5.1 Wheeled Mobile Robots Propulsion 189 8.5.2 Propulsion of Mobile Robots with Caterpillar Drive 190 8.6 Energetic Model of Mechanical Energies Sources 192 8.6.1 Internal Combustion Engines 193 8.6.2 Lithium Electric Batteries 194 8.7 Summary 195 References 195 9 Multi-Robot Systems and Swarming 199 Eugene Kagan, Nir Shvalb, Shlomi Hacohen, and Alexander Novoselsky 9.1 Multi-Agent Systems and Swarm Robotics 199 9.1.1 Principles of Multi-Agent Systems 200 9.1.2 Basic Flocking and Methods of Aggregation and Collision Avoidance 208 9.2 Control of the Agents and Positioning of Swarms 218 9.2.1 Agent-Based Models 219 9.2.2 Probabilistic Models of Swarm Dynamics 234 9.3 Summary 236 References 238 10 Collective Motion with Shared Environment Map 243 Eugene Kagan and Irad Ben-Gal 10.1 Collective Motion with Shared Information 243 10.1.1 Motion in Common Potential Field 244 10.1.2 Motion in the Terrain with Sharing Information About Local Environment 250 10.2 Swarm Dynamics in a Heterogeneous Environment 253 10.2.1 Basic Flocking in Heterogeneous Environment and External Potential Field 253 10.2.2 Swarm Search with Common Probability Map 259 10.3 Examples of Swarm Dynamics with Shared Environment Map 261 10.3.1 Probabilistic Search with Multiple Searchers 261 10.3.2 Obstacle and Collision Avoidance Using Attraction/Repulsion Potentials 264 10.4 Summary 270 References 270 11 Collective Motion with Direct and Indirect Communication 273 Eugene Kagan and Irad Ben-Gal 11.1 Communication Between Mobile Robots in Groups 273 11.2 Simple Communication Protocols and Examples of Collective Behavior 277 11.2.1 Examples of Communication Protocols for the Group of Mobile Robots 278 11.2.1.1 Simple Protocol for Emulating One-to-One Communication in the Lego NXT Robots 278 11.2.1.2 Flocking and Preserving Collective Motion of the Robot's Group 284 11.2.2 Implementation of the Protocols and Examples of Collective Behavior of Mobile Robots 287 11.2.2.1 One-to-One Communication and Centralized Control in the Lego NXT Robots 287 11.2.2.2 Collective Motion of Lego NXT Robots Preserving the Group Activity 291 11.3 Examples of Indirect and Combined Communication 293 11.3.1 Models of Ant Motion and Simulations of Pheromone Robotic System 293 11.3.2 Biosignaling and Destructive Search by the Group of Mobile Agents 297 11.4 Summary 300 References 301 12 Brownian Motion and Swarm Dynamics 305 Eugene Khmelnitsky 12.1 Langevin and Fokker-Plank Formalism 305 12.2 Examples 307 12.3 Summary 316 References 316 13 Conclusions 317 Nir Shvalb, Eugene Kagan, and Irad Ben-Gal Index 319

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